GRAMMAR  TO  USE 


LEWIS  AND  LYNCH 


-  0^^  <Ji.y..^lt:.Jl^ju^ 


GRAMMAR  TO  USE 


BY 


WILLIAM  D.  LEWIS,  A.M.,  Ped.D. 

PRINCIPAL  OF 

THE  WILLIAM  PENN  HIGH   SCHOOL 

PHILADELPHIA 


AND 


HELEN  M.  LYNCH,  A.B. 

TEACHER  OF  ENGLISH  IX 

THE  WILLLAM  PENN  HIGH  SCHOOm 

PHEUPELPHXA 


THE  JOHN  C.  WINSTON  COMPANY 
PHILADELPHIA  CHICAGO 


Copyright,  1918,  by 
The  John  C.  Winston  Co. 


All  Rights  Reserved 


PREFACE 

This  book,  as  its  title  suggests,  is  designed  to 
teach  grammar  for  use  in  expression  rather  than  for 
mere  knowledge  of  grammatical  theory.  An  effort 
has  been  made  to  present  fundamental  grammatical 
])rinciples  with  such  simplicity  and  detail  that  pupils 
of  average  ability  in  grades  seven  to  nine  inclusive 
can  understand  them  with  little  help.  In  this  con- 
nection particular  attention  has  been  paid  to  the 
grading.  In  presenting  each  subject,  the  approach 
has  been  made  as  simple  and  obvious  as  possible, 
and  each  successive  step  has  been  developed  and 
illustrated  clearly.  In  short,  the  aim  of  the  book  is 
not  merely  to  state  and  illustrate  the  principles  of 
grammar,  but  also  to  teach  and  apply  them.  An 
unusually  large  quantity  of  material  for  drill  in  con- 
nection with  each  important  topic  has  been  supplied. 
This  drill  should  establish  the  essential  habit  of  using 
the  principles  learned. 

The  manuscript  of  Grammar  to  Use  was  practi- 
cally complete  before  the  })ublication  of  the  joint 
report  on  the  study  of  English  by  the  commission  of 
the  National  Education  Association  and  the  National 
Council  of  Teachers  of  English.  The  following  quota- 
tion from  the  report,  however,  summarizes  accurately 
the  fundamental  principles  underlying  the  preparation 
of  the  book. 

CUD 

464440 


IV  PKEFAC^E 

"The  reaction  against  English  grammar  arose 
from  the  knowledge  that  the  formal  work  in  the 
subject  that  was  being  done  was  of  small  practical 
value.  A  further  influence  resulted  from  investiga- 
tions tending  to  show  that  grammar  provides  little 
mental  discipline  of  a  general  character.  The 
movement  in  favor  of  simplifying  the  school  course 
and  concentrating  on  essentials  did  the  rest. 
There  is  need  at  the  present  time  of  careful  discrimi- 
nation, lest  the  pendulum  be  allowed  to  swing  too 
far. 

"A  sane  attitude  toward  the  teaching  of  gram- 
mar would  seem  to  be  to  find  out  what  parts  and 
aspects  of  the  subject  have  actual  value  to  children 
in  enabling  them  to  improve  their  speaking,  writing, 
and  reading,  to  teach  these  parts  according  to 
modern  scientific  methods,  and  to  ignore  any  and  all 
portions  of  the  conventional  school  grammar  that 
fall  outside  these  categories.  In  general,  the  gram- 
mar worth  teaching  is  the  grammar  of  use — function 
in  the  sentence — and  the  grammar  to  be  passed 
over  is  "^he  grammar  of  classification— pigeonholing 
by  definition.  Language,  it  is  well  known,  is  learned 
mainly  by  imitation,  largely  unconscious,  and 
children  constantly  use  in  their  speech  hundreds 
of  expressions,  many  of  them  highly  idiomatic, 
which  only  the  linguistic  scholar,  familiar  with  the 
history  of  the  language,  can  explain.  Children 
should  be  set  to  examining  only  those  grammatical 
forms  and  constructions  whose  use  they  can  plainly 
see,  and  they  should  pursue  such  examination 
with  the  conscious  purpose  of  learning  how  to 
make  better  sentences.  Any  other  aim  is  mere 
pedantry.'' 


PREFACE  V 

The  sentences  for  drill,  examples  of  typical  errors, 

and  the  list  of  idioms  are  illustrative  of  the  actual 
usage  of  pupils.  Proverbs  and  literary  quotations 
liave  been  avoided.  The  authors  believe  that  the 
drill  most  likely  to  be  effective  is  that  which  is  most 
nearly  in  the  everyday  language  of  the  pupil. 

Perhaps  the  distinctive  characteristic  of  the  book 
is  the  emphasis  which  it  places  upon  function  as  the 
basis  for  determining  the  classification  and  use  of 
grammatical  elements.  The  word,  phrase,  or  clause 
is  what  its  function  in  the  sentence  makes  it.  If  the 
child  can  be  made  to  understand  clearly  the  nature  of 
a  sentence  and  of  the  work  each  part  of  speech  does 
in  a  sentence,  his  most  serious  grammatical  troubles 
will  disappear.  For  such  a  method  of  development, 
an  understanding  of  the  sentence  is  necessary,  and 
for  this  reason  the  treatment  of  that  subject  has  been 
placed  first. 

The  authors  desire  to  express  their  thanks  to  the 
English  Department  of  the  William  Penn  High  School 
of  Philadelphia  for  the  use  of  illustrative  and  drill 
material,  and  to  Miss  Elizabeth  Lodor,  the  head  of 
this  department,  and  to  Mr.  Bruce  M.  Watson,  for- 
merly Superintendent  of  Schools  of  Spokane,  Wash- 
in.gton,  l)oth  of  whom  have  given  many  invaluable 
suggestions. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  The  Sentence 1 

II.  The  Parts  of  Speech — The  Verb 18 

III.  The  Parts  of  Speech — The  Noun 31 

IV.  The  Parts  of  Speech — The  Preposition  54 
V.  The  Parts  of  Speech — The  Pronoun. .  .  59 

VI.  The  Parts  of  Speech — The  Adjective .  .  81 

VII.  The  Parts  of  Speech — The  Adverb.  ...  92 

VIII.     The  Phrase 100 

IX.     The  Clause 105 

X.  The  Parts  of  Speech — The  Conjunction 

and  the  Interjection Ill 

XI.    Function 121 

XII.     Verb  Forms 124 

XIII.  Punctuation 177 

XIV.  Speaking  and  Writing  English 199 

XV.     Popular  Errors 205 

Index 219 


(VU) 


I.     THE  SENTENCE 

1.  What  a  sentence  is. 

Examine  these  groups  of  words. 

(a)   If  the  train  is  late 

(6)   Ahhough  John  has  not  come 

(c)   When  dinner  is  finished 

Why  are  you  not  satisfied  with  any  of  these 
groups  of  words?  The  reason  is  that  not  one  of  them 
gives  you  a  complete  thought.  Your  desire  to  com- 
plete the  expression  of  a  thought  once  started  is  nat- 
ural. Therefore  you  will  find  no  difficulty  in  finishing 
the  thoughts  written  above.     Finish  (a)  thus: 

If  the  train  is  late,  we  shall  not  reach  Oak  Lane  in 
time  for  the  game. 

This  group  of  words  expresses  a  thought  com- 
pletely.   Complete  (b)  and  (c)  in  a  similar  way. 

Exercise 

Do  any  of  the  following  groups  of  words  express 
a  thought  completely? 

1.  The  whistle  of  the  train 

2.  Eleanor,  the  girl  with  the  dark  hair  ^ 

3.  The  goods  may 

4.  Father  sent  from 

6.  The  rame  with  our  nine 

( 

(1) 


THE  SENTENCE 


i   .,.,  ;    P-  '!Cbe  lady  fro*n  across  the  street 

7.  Every  few  minutes  Harry 

8.  Because  I  went 

9.  When  he  came 
10.  Where  he  is 

Make  each  of  the  word-groups  given  above  into  a 
group  that  expresses  a  thought  completely.  The 
following  dialogue  may  help  you: 

Tom:  "The  birds  singing  in  the  trees." 
James:  "Well,  what  else  have  you  to  say  about  them  V* 
Tom:    *'The  birds  singing  in  the  trees  awoke  me  this 
morning.'* 

James:  "Why  didn't  you  say  so?" 

If  Tom  had  said  at  first,  ^'The  birds  singing  in 
the  trees  awoke  me  this  morning,''  James  would  have 
been  satisfied.  Instead  of  this,  Tom  first  used  a  group 
of  words  that  did  not  say  anything.  His  first  group, 
in  other  words,  did  not  express  a  thought  completely. 

A  group  of  words  that  expresses  a  thought  com- 
pletely is  a  sentence. 

Exercise 

Select  the  sentences  in  the  following  exercise. 
Make  a  sentence  out  of  each  group  of  words  that  is 
not  a  sentence  as  it  stands. 

1.  While  I  was  standing  by  the  gate  waiting  for  my 
father 

2.  Just  as  the  automobile  reached  the  corner  by  the 
post-office 

3.  Will  made  a  home  run 


KINDS  OF   SENTENCES  3 

4.  John,  hurrying  home  from  the  game,  and  riding  as 
fast  as  he  could 

5.  The  frightened  horse  whirled  suddenly  and  ran  in 
the  opposite  direction 

6.  Although  he  was  pleased  with  his  new  friend,  and 
spent  as  much  time  as  he  could  with  him 

Write  ten  sentences  of  your  own,  using  as  materia! 
what  you  can  see  from  your  seat  in  the  class  room. 

2.  Declarative  and  interrogative  sentences. 

(a)  Mary  burnt  her  finger. 

(b)  Did  she  burn  her  finger  badly? 

Both  (a)  and  (6)  above  are  sentences.  Yet  do 
they  not  differ?  (a)  tells  you  something.  (6)  asks 
something. 

The  sentence  which  merely  tells  or  declares  is  a 
declarative  sentence. 

The  sentence  which  asks  a  question  is  an  inter- 
rogative sentence.     Interrogative  means  asking. 

The  declarative  sentence  is  followed  by  a  period  (.). 
The  interrogative  sentence  is  always  followed  by  a 
question  mark  (?). 

Some  grammarians  classify  two  other  kinds  of 
sentence.  These  classifications  serve  httle  purpose 
and  are  gradually  coming  to  be  disregarded.  They 
are  given  under  3  and  4. 

3.  The  imperative  sentence.  • 

(a)  Please  lend  me  your  pencil. 

(6)  Strike,  till  the  last  armed  foe  expires. 

These  sentences  express  an  entreaty  or  a  com- 


4  THE  SENTENCE 

mand.     Such  a  sentence,  like  the  declarative  sentence, 
is  followed  by  a  period. 

4.  The  exclamatory  sentence. 

How  blue  the  sky  is  today ! 

The  essential  quality  of  the  exclamatory  sentence 
is  its  expression  of  strong  feeling.  It  may  take  the 
form  of  a  statement,  a  command,  or  a  question. 

Statement:  Oh,  we  were  so  tired! 

Command:  Oh,  see  that  beautiful  boat! 

Question:  Oh,  John,  why  in  the  world  did  you  do  that! 

The  exclamatory  sentence  is  always  followed  by 
the  exclamation  point  (!). 

5.  Subject  and  predicate. 

(a)  Mary  threw  the  ball  over  the  fence. 

You  can  divide  this  sentence  into  two  parts: 
(1)  Mary  J  and  (2)  what  is  said  about  Mary. 

(h)  John  was  cheerful  and  gay. 

The  two  parts  here  are  (1)  John,  and  (2)  what  is 
said  about  John. 

(c)  The  wires  were  broken  during  the  storm. 

The  two  parts  are  (1)  the  wires,  and  (2)  what  is 
said  about  the  wires. 

(d)  It  was  the  best  of  all  my  books. 

The  two  parts  are  (1)  It,  and  (2)  what  is  said  about 
It. 


SUBJECT  AND   PREDICATE  5 

Could  you  leave  out  either  part  1  or  2  from  any 
of  these  sentences  and  still  retain  a  complete  thought? 
You  could  not.  In  (a),  for  example,  if  you  left  out 
Mary,  you  would  not  know  who  did  the  throwing, 
and  if  you  left  out  threw  the  ball  over  the  fence,  you 
would  not  know  what  Mary  did.  Every  sentence 
must  have  these  two  parts.  Part  1  always  tells  one 
of  three  facts:  who  does  the  action  mentioned  by 
part  2;  or  the  person  of  whom  part  2  says  something; 
or  the  thing  of  which  part  2  says  something.  Part  2 
alwaj^s  tells  what  part  1  does,  or  says  something  about 
part  1. 

The  real  name  of  part  1  is  subject;  the  real  name 
of  part  2  is  predicate. 

The  subject  of  a  sentence  is  the  part  about  which 
a  statement  is  made. 

The  predicate  of  a  sentence  is  the  part  that  makes 
the  statement. 

Watch  your  own  speech  to  see  whether  you  are 
careful  to  speak  in  sentences. 

Exercise 
Select  the  subjects  and  predicates  in  the  following 
sentences : 

1 .  The  messenger  delivered  the  telegram. 

2.  The  picnic  tables  were  placed  under  the  trees. 

3.  I  spent  my  entire  allowance  on  a  book. 

4.  The  boy  jumped  nimbly  over  the  railing. 

5.  The  traveler  spent  many  lonesome  weeks  in  the 


Alps. 


The  postman  brings  the  letters  at  eight  o'clock. 


6  THE  SENTENCE 

7.  The  girl  lost  her  purse. 

8.  Marconi  invented  the  wireless  telegraph. 

9.  The  letter  was  sent  to  me  by  mistake. 

10.  The  entertainment  was  held  at  the  town  hall. 

11.  Parades  block  traffic  in  large  cities. 

12.  It  was  my  turn  to  get  breakfast. 

13.  The  package  weighed  eight  pounds. 

14.  A  special  delivery  stamp  costs  ten  cents. 

15.  Reporters  gather  news  for  papers. 

Exercise 

Write  the  subjects  of  the  following  sentences  in 
one  column,  and  the  predicates  in  another: 

1.  Juno  scolded  her  favorite  bird,  the  peacock. 

2.  Hans  Andersen's  statue  stands  in  Lincoln  Park  in 
Chicago. 

3.  Maid   Marian  cooked   delicious  meals  for  Robin 
Hood's  men.  * 

4.  I  thank  you. 

5.  His  scarlet  shoes  were  embroidered  with  gold. 

6.  I  never  saw  a  happier  face. 

7.  The  king  always  listened  to  the  woes  of  his  subjects. 

8.  This  knight  had  many  friends  among  the  poor. 

9.  God  bless  you. 

10.  I  must  shake  hands  with  the  youngster. 

11.  He  may  win  the  game  yet. 

12.  The  Yale  captain  gasped. 

13.  Miuray  copied  the  lists. 

14.  A  roar  of  cheering  rose  from  a  corner  of  the  field. 

15.  The  eleven  ran  out  into  the  field  like  colts  at  pasture. 

16.  Ford  recognized  the  writing  of  the  managing  editor. 

17.  His  sleep  was  distressed  by  unhappy  dreams. 

18.  King  flushed  and  bit  his  lip. 


SIMPLE  AND   COMPOUND   SUBJECTS  7 

19.  We  offered  no  explanations. 

20.  For  a  moment  he  forgot  his  crushing  burden  of 
debt. 

21.  Hans  Andersen  wrote  fairy  tales  for  children. 

6.  The  simple  sentence.  Each  of  the  sentences  you 
have  studied  so  far  in  this  chapter  expresses  but  one 
complete  thought.  A  sentence  containing  but  one 
subject  and  predicate  can  express  only  one  thought 
completely. 

A  simple  sentence  contains  only  one  subject  and 
one  predicate. 

Exercise 

Make  up  ten  simple  sentences,  using  as  material 
experiences  you  have  had  in  the  last  twenty-four  hours. 

7.  Simple  and  compound  subjects.  The  subjects 
in  (a),  (6),  (c),  and  (d),  page  4,  are  called  simple 
subjects  because  they  mention  only  one  person  or 
thing.  Note  the  difference  between  those  subjects 
and  these: 

(a)  George  and  John  went  to  school  together. 

(b)  The  telephone  and  the  telegraph  are  recent 

inventions. 

The  only  difference  between  these  sentences  and 
those  given  on  page  4  is  that  in  (a)  two  persons  are 
mentioned  instead  of  one;  and  in  (6)  two  things  are 
mentioned  instead  of  one. 

A  compound  subject  is  made  up  of  two  or  more 


8  THE  SENTENCE 

connected  subjects  having  the  same  predicate.     Com- 
pound means  made  of  two  or  more  parts. 

8.  Compound  predicates.  Just  as  the  subject  may 
mention  two  or  more  persons  or  things,  so  may  the 
predicate  say  two  or  more  things  about  the  subject. 
For  instance : 

(a)  John  knelt  and  said  his  prayers. 

(6)  Harry  swung  his  arm  and  threw  the  ball. 

A  compound  predicate  is  made  up  of  two  or  more 
connected  predicates  having  the  same  subject. 

A  compound  subject  is  regarded  as  one  subject, 
even  though  it  is  made  up  of  two  parts;  so>  also,  a 
compound  predicate  is  regarded  as  one  predicate, 
although  it  is  composed  of  two  parts. 

A  sentence  which  expresses  but  one  complete 
thought,  with  the  aid  of  either  a  compound  subject 
or  a  compound  predicate,  is  still  a  simple  sentence. 

Exercise 

Point  out  the  compound  subjects  and  predicates 
in  the  following  simple  sentences: 

1.  The  steamer  and  the  tug  dropped  slowly  down  the 
harbor. 

2.  The  woman  wrung  her  hands  and  cried  out  in  fear. 

3.  The  boys  and  girls  had  a  merry  party. 

4.  The  children  and  their  mother  have  gone  to  the 
seashore. 

5.  Harry  and  I  will  be  there  promptly. 

6.  They  begged  and  implored  us  to  forgive  them. 

7.  He  caught  and  held  the  falling  child  securely. 


THE   COMPOUND   SENTENCE  9 

8.  Chairs  and  tables  were  brought  out  on  the  porch. 

9.  Prosperity  and  happiness  are  flowing  in  upon  him. 
10.  Aunt  Mary  arranged  the  v/hole  plan  and  took  the 

responsibility  of  carrying  it  out. 

9.  The  compound  sentence. 

(a)  The  two  nurses  carried  bandages,  and  the  doc- 
tors followed  with  the  heavier  things. 

(6)  His  timely  hit  won  the  game,  and  the  game 
won  the  series. 

(c)  Mary  read  many  books,  but  she  always  forgot 
their  names. 

How  many  thoughts  are  expressed  by  each  of 
the  sentences  given  above?  Notice  that  in  (a)  and 
(b)  the  connection  between  the  two  thoughts  in  each 
case  is  made  by  and,  and  that  in  (c)  the  connection 
is  made  by  but.  Observe,  also,  that  in  each  of  the 
three  sentences  the  second  thought  expressed  is  just 
as  important  as  the  first  one.  If  in  any  of  the  three 
casep  you  dropped  the  connecting  word,  and  placed 
a  period  after  the  first  thought,  the  first  thought 
would  make  sense  standing  alone;  so,  also,  would 
the  second  thought  standing  alone.  Such  a  sentence, 
made  up  of  two  or  more  equally  important  parts,  is 
called  a  compound  sentence. 

The  compound  sentence  is  one  which  is  made 
up  of  two  or  more  equally  important  parts. 

Exercise 

Select  the  equally  important  thoughts  from  the 
following  compound  sentences: 


10  THE  SENTENCE 

1.  I  shall  pass  by  many  attractive  furnishings,  but  I 
cannot  help  mentioning  a  pair  of  antlers  in  the  great  hall. 

2.  She  has  been  a  pet  with  all  the  servants  since 
childhood,  and  every  one  of  them  seems  to  lay  some  claim 
to  her  education. 

3.  Mr.  Tibbetts  was  not  at  home,  but  we  received  a 
hearty  welcome  from  his  wife. 

4.  Fruit  trees  were  trained  up  against  the  cottage,  and 
pots  of  flowers  stood  in  the  windows. 

5.  The  furniture  was  old-fashioned,  strong,  and  highly 
polished,  and  the  walls  were  hung  with  colored  prints  of  the 
Prodigal  Son  and  of  other  characters  from  the  Bible. 

You  must  make  sure  that  you  know  the  differ- 
ence between  a  compound  subject  or  a  compound 
predicate,  and  a  compound  sentence.     In  the  sentence, 

The  two  nurses  carried  bandages,  and  the  doctors 
followed  with  the  heavier  things, 

nurses  is  the  subject  of  carried^  and  doctors  is  the  subject 
of  followed. 

In  the  sentence, 

George  and  John  went  to  school  together, 

the  two  words  George  and  John  are  together  the  subject 
of  went. 

Exercise 

Point  out  which  of  the  following  sentences  con- 
tain compound  subjects  or  predicates,  and  which  are 
compound  sentences: 

1.  Bertha  and  I  made  and  distributed  the  gifts. 

2.  Jack  measured  the  distance  carefully  with  his  eye, 
and  kicked  the  ball  directly  between  the  posts. 


THE  CLAUSE  11 

3.  Fred  and  I  both  ran  at  the  call  for  help  and  bumped 
into  each  other  at  the  door. 

4.  We  saw  no  one,  but  we  heard  the  sound  of  footsteps 
near  us. 

5.  We  followed  the  road  for  a  mile  and  then  turned  into 
the  field. 

6.  The  door  opened  and  she  entered  smiling, 

7.  I  see  again  the  expression  of  Lincoln's  face,  and  I 
hear  again  the  sound  of  his  voice,  and  I  recall  even  the  details 
of  his  dress  on  that  memorable  evening. 

8.  The  boy  sprang  from  the  old  man's  side  and 
threaded  his  way  down  the  dark  stairs. 

9.  He  raised  himself  on  tiptoe  and  shouted  the  single 
word,  "Ring!" 

10.  A  young  man  picked  up  some  of  the  hailstones  and 
examined  them. 

11.  The  heavens  declare  the  glory  of  God,  and  the 
firmament  showeth  his  handiwork. 

12.  The  book  dealer  and  his  customer  walked  down  the 
street. 

13.  Mr.  Tupman  advanced  a  step  or  two  and  glared 
at  Mr.  Pickwick. 

14.  "The  Assyrian  came  down  like  the  wolf  on  the  fold. 

And  his  cohorts  were  gleaming  in  purple  and  gold ; 
And  the  sheen  of  their  spears  was  like  stars  on  the 
sea." 

15.  The  king  pardoned  them  and  invited  them  to  live 
with  him  at  his  court. 

16.  Robin  Hood  and  his  band  were  a  merry  group  of 
men. 

10.  The  term  clause.  The  two  thoughts  in  the 
compound  sentence  have  been  referred  to  as  the  first 
thought  and   the  second   thought.      The  real  name 


12  THE   SENTENCE 

for    the    first    thought    and    the    second    thought   is 
clause. 

A  simple  sentence  has  only  one  subject  and  one 
predicate;  so  we  need  not  think  of  the  word  clause  in 
connection  with  the  simple  sentence.  The  compound 
sentence,  on  the  contrary,  is  made  up  of  two  or  more 
simple  sentences  so  connected  that  either  of  the  sen- 
tences could  stand  alone  if  the  connecting  word  were 
removed.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  have  a  name 
for  the  different  divisions  of  the  compound  sentence 
so  that  you  can  refer  to  them  clearly.  The  term  clause 
is  used  for  each  of  these  parts. 

A  clause  is  a  division  of  a  sentence  which  con- 
tains a  subject  and  predicate. 

The  first  clause  in  (a),  page  9,  is.  The  two  nurses 
carried  bandages.  The  second  clause  is,  the  doctors 
followed  with  the  heavier  things. 

Exercise 

Name  the  clauses  in  the  following  compound 
sentences : 

1.  It  was  a  shr.rp  flesh  of  lightning,  but  fortunately  it 
did  not  strike. 

2.  She  wrote  and  posted  the  invitation;  but  I  never 
received  it. 

3.  The  detective  told  his  story,  and  then  I  told  mine. 

4.  The  thunder  rolled,  and  the  winds  howled. 

5.  She  works  hard,  but  she  never  accomplishes  anything. 

6.  The  accident  had  cnnerved  the  man,  but  he  kept 
control  of  himself, 

7.  The  good  squire's  heart  warmed  toward  his  friend, 
and  he  at  once  cast  about  for  means  to  help  him. 


THE  COMPLEX  SENTENCE  13 

11.  Coordinating  words.  Note  that  and  and  hut  are 
the  connecting  words  most  frequently  used  between 
clauses  of  equal  importance.  Because  it  is  the  duty 
of  and  and  but  to  connect  equally  important  clauses, 
and  and  but  are  called  coordinating  connecimg  words. 
Coordinating  means  making  to  work  together  or 
making  to  have  equal  rank. 

Or  and  nor  are  also  coordinating  connecting 
words,  and  are  used  in  much  the  same  way  as  and 
and  but.     Examples: 

1.  You  may  come  at  five,  or  you  may  come  at  six. 

2.  He  came  not,  nor  did  he  give  a  reason  for  his  absence. 

3.  She  does  not  like  me,  nor  do  I  like  her. 

12.  The  complex  sentence.    Compare  these  sentences 
with  those  of  the  preceding  exercises : 

(a)  Towser  always  comes  when  he  is  called. 

(6)  If  you  do  not  come  early,  you  will  miss  all  the 

fun. 
(c)  He  read  the  letter  which  he  had  just  received. 

You  see  that  these  sentences  resemble  those  of  the 
preceding  section  in  that  each  has  two  clauses.  Notice, 
however,  this  important  difference:  the  clauses  in 
the  sentences  of  section  9  are  equally  important, 
and  could  be  used  as  simple  sentences  by  merely 
dropping  out  the  connecting  and,  but,  or  similar  word. 
When  you  try  to  make  simple  sentences  out  of  the  two 
clauses  of  (a)  in  this  paragraph,  these  are  che  results: 

First  clause:  Towser  always  comes. 
Second  clause:  When  he  is  called. 


U  THE   SENTENCE 

You  see  that  when  he  is  called  fails  to  meet  the 
requirement  of  every  sentence — that  of  expressing 
a  thought  completely.  The  second  clause  of  (a), 
therefore,  can  not  be  used  alone  to  form  a  complete 
sentence.  The  two  clauses  together,  however,  make 
good  sense: 

Towser  always  comes  when  he  is  called. 

Which  is  the  more  important  clause  of  the  two? 
Give  a  reason  for  your  answer. 

Try  with  (b)  and  (c)  the  same  experiment  that 
you  have  just  tried  with  the  clauses  of  (a).  Decide  in 
each  case  which  of  the  two  clauses  is  the  more  impor- 
tant, and  give  reasons. 

It  is  evident  that  some  sentences  are  made  up  of 
two  or  more  clauses  which  are  not  all  of  equal  impor- 
tance. Plainly,  each  of  these  three  sentences  contains 
one  clause  which  depends  upon  the  other  clause  of  the 
sentence  for  its  meaning. 

You  have  noticed  in  each  of  these  three  cases 
that  the  less  important  clause  fails  to  make  sense  by 
itself,  and  that,  if  it  were  not  used  in  connection  with 
the  more  important  clause,  it  could  not  be  used  at  all. 
For  this  reason,  you  call  the  less  important  clause 
a  dependent  or  subordinate  clause.  Subordinate  means 
placed  in  a  lower  position.  The  more  important  clause 
you  call  the  principal  or  independent  clause. 

A  subordinate  clause  expresses  a  thought  which 
must  be  spoken  or  read  in  connection  with  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  the  sentence;  that  is,  it  depends  upon 
its  principal  clause  for  existence. 


THE  COMPLEX   SENTENCE  15 

A  principal  clause  expresses  a  thought  upon  which 
some  other  clause  depends. 

Sentences  like  these,  made  up  of  one  principal 
clause  and  one  or  more  subordinate  clauses,  are 
called  complex  sentences. 

Complex  means  made  of  many  parts. 

Exercise 

Tell  which  of  the  following  sentences  are  simple, 
which  are  compound,  and  which  are  complex: 

1.  The    clerk    was    unsatisfactory    because    he    was 
careless. 

2.  The  lights  of  the  moving  train  shone  mistily  through 
the  fog. 

3.  There  is  only  one  road  by  which  you  can  reach 
Cedar  Falls. 

4.  The  machine  slid  easily  over  the  smooth  road. 

5.  There  is  a  frightful  chasm  a  few  miles  from  the  hall, 
which  goes  by  the  name  of  Merry's  Leap. 

6.  The  king  must  prevail  over  his  counsellors,  or  he 
must  lose  his  influence  with  the  people. 

7.  The  machinery  was  giving  trouble,  but  the  manager 
insisted  that  the  plant  must  be  kept  going. 

8.  The  automobile  escaped  without  serious  damage, 
but  its  occupants  were  badly  injured. 

9.  I  have  no  plan  made,  but  I  feel  sure  of  success. 
10.  These  directions  were  left  here  by  the  supervisor. 

j  11.  I  hurried  because  I  feared  that  I  was  late. 

12.  A  wise  man  often  sees  the  wisdom  of  changing  his 
I  mind,  but  a  fool  never  does. 

13.  Hundreds  of  bathers  let  the  breakers  pound  them 
and  shrieked  joyously  at  each  blow  of  the  waves. 


16  THE   SENTENCE 

14.  The  Eagle  is  a  summer  hotel,  but  the  next  house 
furnishes  accommodations  for  the  winter  months. 

15.  When  at  last  the  great  man  spoke,  the  silence  was 
that  of  midnight  in  the  forest. 

16.  The  baby  clams  that  were  washed  up  on  the  beach 
by  the  tide  scurried  for  shelter  in  the  sand  with  the  most 
amazing  liveliness. 

Exercise 

Classify  each  of  the  following  sentences  as  simple^ 
compound,  or  complex.  Proceed  in  this  way:  find 
each  clause;  pick  out  its  subject  and  predicate;  deter- 
mine whether  each  clause  is  principal  or  subordinate. 
You  will  then  be  able  to  decide  what  kind  of  sentence 
each  is.  Note  that  some  sentences  are  both  compound 
and  complex. 

1.  My  good  old  aunt,  who  had  never  parted  with  me 
at  the  close  of  a  hohday  without  giving  me  a  box  of  sweets, 
gave  me  at  this  time  only  a  bottle  of  peppermint. 

2.  I  am  one  of  those  who  give  freely  to  their  friends. 

3.  People  frequently  ask  advice  which  they  do  not 
intend  to  follow. 

4.  He  never  knew  the  details  of  the  plot,  but  he  knew 
the  name  of  every  man  concerned  in  it. 

5.  Neil  bent  forward  and  lashed  the  horse  savagely 
with  his  whip. 

6.  The  Bible  story  of  Ruth  is  a  perfect  story  of  simple 
country  life  among  the  Hebrews. 

7.  Backward  and  forward,  with  sturdy  strokes,  he 
swings  the  iron  tongue  of  the  bell. 

8.  An  old  clock  that  had  gone  faultlessly  for  fifty 
years  suddenly  stopped. 

9.  A  rubber  ball  with  a  hole  in  it  was  his  favorite 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  SENTENCES  17 

plaything.  He  would  take  it  into  his  mouth  and  rush 
around  the  house  with  it  like  a  child.  When  he  got  a  new 
ball,  he  would  hide  his  old  one  away  until  the  new  one  was 
the  worse  worn  of  the  two,  and  then  he  would  bring  out  the 
old  one  again. 

10.  The  song  ended  with  two  great  shouts,  and  an 
intense  stillness  followed.  The  old  priest  stood  silent  for  a 
moment.     Then  he  lifted  his  face  and  spoke. 

11.  The  Princeton  quarter-back  had  darted  through 
the  line  like  a  bullet.  Without  slackening  speed  he  scooped 
up  the  ball  as  he  fled  toward  the  Yale  goal-line. 

12.  The  boy  was  sitting  on  a  bench  when  the  elder 
Seeley  entered  the  steaming  room  of  the  training  house. 
The  surgeon  was  removing  a  muddy  bandage.  The  boy 
scowled  and  winced  but  he  made  no  complaint. 


II.    THE  PARTS   OF   SPEECH— The  Verb 

13.  What  the  parts  of  speech  are.  If  you  were  asked 
of  what  small  divisions  our  speech,  both  oral  and 
written,  is  made  up,  you  would  probably  say,  "Our 
speech  is  divided  into  sentences."  But  sentences 
are  made  up  of  words.  The  real  basis  of  our  speech, 
then,  is  the  separate  words  of  which  it  is  made  up. 
All  the  words  of  our  language  have  been  named  accord- 
ing to  the  kinds  of  work  which  they  do  in  sentences. 
There  are  eight  definite  duties  which  words  perform 
in  the  making  of  sentences.  Every  word  of  the 
language,  then,  can  be  put  into  a  class  determined 
by  one  of  these  eight  duties;  and  each  of  these  duties 
has  a  name  that  identifies  it.  The  words  of  the 
language,  classified  under  the  head  of  the  eight  duties 
of  words,  are  called  the  parts  of  speech. 

The  only  reason  that  a  word  belongs  to  one  part 
of  speech  rather  than  another,  is  that  it  does  the  work 
of  that  part. 

14.  What  the  verb  does. 

Carl  throws  pennies  to  the  children. 

The  subject  of  this  sentence  is  Carl;  the  whole 
predicate  is  throws  pennies  to  the  children. 

The  whole  predicate  in  the  sentence  given  above 
expresses  the  action  performed  by  the  subject.  There 
is  one  particular  word  in  the  predicate,  which,  more 

(18) 


VERBS  1^ 

than  any  other,  tells  the  exact  action  performed  by 
Carl.     This  word  is  throws. 

Pennies  tells  what  Carl  throws;  to  the  children 
tells  to  whom  he  throws  the  pennies;  but  throws 
tells  the  exact  action  performed  by  Carl. 

Exercise 

Divide  each  of  the  following  sentences  into  a 
subject  and  a  predicate.  Then  point  out  in  each 
predicate  the  word  which  tells  the  exact  action  per- 
formed by  the  subject. 

(a)  Mabel  plays  the  piano. 
(6)  The  boy  broke  five  glasses. 

(c)  The  sun  shines. 

(d)  The  birds  ate  all  the  crumbs. 

(e)  We  planted  ferns  in  our  yard. 

(/)  Marion  always  wears  pink  sashes. 

(g)  John  swept  the  porch. 

(h)  KaTTy  drives  our  car. 

(i)  Engineers  control  engines. 

The  words,  playsy  broke,  shines,  etc.,  in  each  case 
express  the  action  the  sentence  is  telling  you  about, 
Because  these  words  perform  a  special  duty  in  the 
predicate,  they  have  a  name  of  their  own;  this  name 
is  verb. 

Words  which  express  action  are  called  verbs. 

Exercise 

Select  the  verbs  from  the  predicates  of  these 
sentences : 


20  THE  VERB 

1.  Tlie  cat  spilled  her  milk. 

2.  Mary,  kindly  close  the  door. 

3.  Farmers  make  hay  in  July. 

4.  Eleanor  cried  because  she  had  hurt  her  hand. 

5.  William  transplanted  his  strawberry  plants. 

6.  The  flag  waved  from  the  pole. 

7.  The  fire  bell  sounded  clearly  through  the  air. 

8.  Auntie  read  the  note  quickly. 

9.  The  children  loved  their  white  rabbits. 

10.  Robert  picked  flowers  for  his  birthday  party. 

11.  Lawyer  Andrews  lost  the  case. 

12.  John  posted  your  letter  promptly. 

13.  New  York  State  remodels  her  constitution  every 
twenty  years. 

14.  Physicians  make  careful  examinations  of  patients. 

15.  The  use  of  the  typewriter  strengthens  the  fingers. 

16.  Cows  produce  milk. 

17.  The  young  trees  sway  in  the  wind. 

18.  Leaves  fall  in  autumn. 

19.  Mirrors  sometimes  flatter  people. 

15.  The  linking  verb.  Read  the  following  sentences, 
carefully  dividing  them  into  their  subjects  and  predi- 
cates : 

(a)  The  firemen  were  here. 

(b)  My  sister  is  asleep. 

(c)  You  seem  nervous. 

It  is  plain  to  you  at  once  that  no  one  of  these 
predicates  expresses  an  action  performed  by  the 
subject.  These  predicates  merely  make  a  state- 
ment about  the  subject,  and  this  statement  has  noth- 
ing to  do  with  action.      You  conclude,   then,   that 


LINKING   WORDS  21 

predicates  sometimes  merely  make  statements  about 
the  subject  without  expressing  action  at  all. 

If  a  predicate  makes  a  statement  about  a  subject 
without  expressing  action,  there  is  always  some  one 
word  in  the  predicate  which  acts  as  a  linking  word 
to  join  the  subject  and  predicate.  In  (a),  for  example, 
the  subject  is  firemen.  The  whole  predicate  is  were 
here.  Here  tells  the  place  where  the  firemen  were. 
Were  is  the  word  which  bridges  the  gap  between  the 
subject,  firemen  J  and  the  place  where  the  firemen 
were.  Were  links  the  subject  firemen  with  the  place 
where  the  firemen  were,  and  is  at  the  same  time  part 
of  the  predicate. 

Whole  predicate,  were  here. 

Linking  word,  at  same  time  part  of  predicate,  were. 

In  (6),  the  subject  is  sister.  The  whole  predicate 
is  is  asleep.  Asleep  tells  the  condition  of  my  sister. 
In  this  sentence,  then,  is  links  or  connects  sister  with 
asleep,  and  is  at  the  same  time  part  of  the  predicate. 

WTiole  predicate,  is  asleep. 

Linking  word,  at  same  time  part  of  predicate,  is. 

In  (c)  you  is  the  subject.  Seem  nervous  is  the  whole 
predicate.  Seem  is  the  word  in  the  predicate  which  links 
the  subject  you  to  the  remaining  part  of  che  predicate. 

When  a  predicate  makes  a  statement  about  a 
subject  but  does  not  express  action,  there  is  always 
a  word  which  links  the  subject  to  the  predicate. 

Such  words  are  called  linking  words,  and  as  parts 
of  speech  are  classified  under  the  same  name  as  the 
words  that  express  action  about  a  subject.  Words 
that  link  the  subject  and  predicate  are  called  verbs. 


22  THE  VERB 

Exercise 

Select  the  linking  verbs  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Henry  is  pale. 

2.  Swimming  in  deep  water  is  dangerous. 

3.  Spring-time  is  moving  time. 

4.  Mary  seems  herself  again. 

5.  Are  all  here? 

6.  There  is  no  time  like  the  present. 

7.  Flowers  are  a  comfort  to  sick  people. 

8.  It  is  hard  work  to  study  properly. 

9.  Forks  are  table  necessities. 

10.  The  picnic  was  a  success. 

11.  Fred  seemed  uncomfortable. 

Exercise 

From  these  sentences,  tell  which  verbs  are  linking, 
and  which  express  action : 

1.  The  cow  jumped  over  the  moon. 

2.  Cobb  is  a  great  ball-player. 

3.  I  brushed  the  crumbs  from  the  table. 

4.  Her  eyes  are  gray. 

5.  This  screen  hides  me  from  the  street. 

6.  The  door  banged. 

7.  Mary  cut  the  apple  into  four  quarters. 

8.  Mother  gave  me  six  cookies. 

9.  Harry's  father  punished  him  for  disobedience. 

10.  He  seemed  uneasy. 

11.  Keep  off  the  grass. 

12.  Football  is  a  wonderful  game. 

13.  My  grandmother  made  candles. 

14.  Samuel  knocked  a  ball  into  center  field. 

15.  Colleges  are  places  for  the  education  of  the  young. 

16.  No  self-respecting  boy  lies. 


THE  TRANSITIVE  VERB  23 

17.  Cheating  is  dishonorable. 

18.  Without  doubt,  Austin  expected  the  prize. 

19.  High  marks  are  usually  signs  of  good  work. 

16.  The  transitive  verb. 
John  broke  his  slate. 

This  sentence  contains  an  action  verb.  Separate 
the  sentence  into  its  subject  and  predicate.  John  is 
the  subject;  broke  his  slate  is  the  predicaie.  The  verb 
in  that  predicate  is  broke.  Broke  expresses  action. 
But  does  broke  tell  you  all  you  need  to  know  about 
that  action?  In  other  words,  if  you  ended  the  sentence 
after  the  word  broke,  would  the  expression  of  action 
be  complete?  If  you  say,  John  broke ,  your  natural 
question  is.  Broke  what?  You  see  then  that 
broke  alone  does  not  tell  you  all  you  need  to  know 
about  the  action  expressed  in  this  sentence.  Slate 
completes  the  action  partly  expressed  by  broke  because 
it  receives  the  action.  Receives  here  means  gets  or 
takes  in.  You  will  realize  how  truly  slate  receives  the 
action  from  broke  if  you  will  imagine  for  an  instant  how 
a  whole  slate  looks,  and  then  how  a  broken  slate  looks. 

Notice  that  in  the  sentence.  His  slate  was  broken 
by  John,  you  can  express  the  same  thought  in  a  differ- 
ent way.  The  subject  now  is  slate.  The  predicate  is 
was  broken.  Was  broken  clearly  expresses  action. 
The  slate  was  broken.  Slate,  then,  just  as  before, 
receives  the  action  from  the  verb.  You  see  the  same 
picture  when  you  think  of  the  action  expressed  in  this 
way.  All  sentences  containing  a  verb  which  denotes 
action  received  can  be  expressed  in  two  ways. 


24  THE   VERB 

Exercise 

From  each  of  these  sentences  select  the  action 
verb  and  the  word  which  receives  the  action : 

1.  I  dropped  my  watch. 

2.  My  watch  was  dropped  by  me. 

3.  The  farmer  ploughed  his  field. 

4.  His  field  was  ploughed  by  the  farmer. 

5.  The  boys  built  a  camp. 

6.  A  camp  was  built  by  the  boys. 

7.  The  flood  destroyed  bridges. 

.   8.  Bridges  were  destroyed  by  the  flood. 

9.  The  baby  tore  my  dress. 

10.  My  dress  was  torn  by  the  baby. 

11.  Jim  learned  his  lesson  well. 

12.  Jim's  lesson  was  well  learned. 

13.  Walter  won  the  championship. 

14.  The  championship  was  won  by  Walter. 

15.  Mary  felt  a  shock  from  the  electric  iron. 

16.  A  shock  from  the  electric  iron  was  felt  by  Mary. 

You  see  then  that  some  action  verbs  require  in 
the  sentence  a  word  to  receive  that  action  in  order 
to  express  a  complete  thought. 

A  verb  which  expresses  action  that  is  received 
by  some  word  in  the  sentence  is  called  a  transitive 
verb.  Transitive  means  passing  over.  A  transitive 
verb  really  does  pass  over  the  action  that  it  expresses 
to  some  other  word  in  the  sentence. 

I  17.  Voice.  In  section  16  you  learned  that  all 
sentences  containing  a  verb  which  denotes  action 
received  can  be  expressed  in  two  ways.     The  voice  of 


VOICE  25 

the  verb  is  determined  by  the  way  in  which  the  verb 
expresses  the  action.     In  the  sentence, 

John  broke  his  slate, 

John  J  the  subject,  acts;   its  verb  is  said  to  be  in  the 
active  voice.     Turn  the  sentence  around: 

His  slate  was  broken  by  John,  Here  the  subject, 
slate,  is  the  word  which  receives  the  action;  instead 
of  acting,  this  subject  allows  itself  to  be  acted  upon. 
This  is  the  very  opposite  of  acting,  and  so  the  name 
given  to  the  voice  of  the  verb  in  this  sentence  is  passive. 
Passive  means  inactive. 

The  reason  why  it  is  necessary  for  you  to  be 
able  to  tell  the  voice  of  a  verb  is  that  the  form  of  the 
verb  changes  according  to  the  way  in  which  that 
verb  expresses  action. 

In  the  sentence,  John  broke  his  slate,  John,  the 
subject  of  the  verb,  is  performing  the  act. 

Compare  the  verb,  broke,  in  this  sentence  with 
the  verb  in  the  passive  form :  His  slate  was  broken  by 
John. 

The  subject  of  this  sentence  is  slate,  which  receives 
the  action. 

The  two  forms  of  the  verb,  then,  are: 

With  subject  performing  action,  broke. 

With  subject  receiving  action,  was  broken. 

A  verb  is  said  to  be  in  the  active  voice  when  its 
subject  acts.  A  verb  is  said  to  be  in  the  passive  voice 
when  its  subject  is  acted  upon. 

To  test  the  voice  of  a  verb,  therefore,  look  at  its 
subject. 


26  THE  VERB 

Exercise 

Tell  whether  each  of  these  verbs  is  in  the  active  or 
the  passive  voice: 

1.  The  race  was  won  by  persistent  effort. 

2.  The  fireman  flung  himself  into  the  building. 

3.  Lightning  shattered  that  tree. 

4.  Those  stones  are  placed  there  for  landmarks. 

5.  The  car  was  overturned  instantly. 

6.  The  gun  was  loaded  with  cartridges. 

7.  The  goods  were  charged  to  me. 

8.  I  like  exciting  books. 

9.  I  lost  my  way  when  I  turned  into  Sixth  Street. 
10.  Many  are  called  but  few  are  chosen. 

Exercise 

Select  the  verbs  from  the  following  sentences. 
State  the  voice  of  each  with  your  reason,  and  state 
also  why  each  is  a  transitive  verb.      Model  sentence: 

The  message  was  brought  by  a  boy. 

The  verb  was  brought  is  in  the  passive  voice 
because  its  subject,  message j  is  acted  upon.  Was 
brought  is  a  transitive  verb,  because  it  expresses  the 
action  received  by  message. 

1.  I  could  see  the  bird  under  the  vines. 

2.  I  drew  the  ropes  tight. 

3.  He  warned  the  tramp  in  time. 

4.  Merivale  spent  a  restless  month. 

6.  This  year  I  have  felt  the  great  beauty  of  the  world. 

6.  The  poor  creature  was  wronged  by  everybody. 

7.  Mrs.  Cubb  was  rudely  thrust  out  of  the  house. 


THE  INTRANSITIVE  VERB  27 

8.  My  boys  never  mentioned  Georgiana. 

9.  The  candidate  was  defeated  by  a  large  majority. 

10.  We  were  enabled  to  recognize  the  criminal  by  a 
photograph. 

11.  Mrs.  Walters  pressed  her  lips  closely  together  and 
shook  her  head. 

12.  The  letter  had  been  written  in  great  haste. 

13.  Signs  warning  motorists  were  posted  a  mile  apart. 

14.  The  boy  has  annoyed  me  more  than  once. 

15.  Sylvia  wore  big  blue  rosettes  in  her  hair. 

16.  That  book  has  been  read  by  many  happy  children. 

17.  I  picked  my  first  dish  of  strawberries  this  morning. 

18.  He  was  not  even  tempted  to  wrong  his  employer. 

19.  I  carried  the  red  bird  over  to  Georgiana. 

20.  The  check  was  received  on  the  same  day. 

Sometimes  you  will  be  puzzled  by  action  verbs 
because  the  action  they  express  is  not  the  kind  that 
you  can  see  with  your  eyes.  The  action  that  you 
perceive  with  your  brain  is  just  as  truly  action  as  any 
other.  For  instance,  in  the  sentence,  Jim  learned 
his  lesson  well,  the  action  of  learning  goes  on  in  Jim's 
mind;  you  cannot  see  it;  but  the  teacher  can  per- 
ceive the  results  of  it.  In  the  sentence,  Mother  needs 
me,  you  cannot  see  with  your  eyes  that  there  is  action, 
but  you  can  understand  that  n£eds  expresses  a  mental 
action — the  action  of  wanting  or  of  feeling  the 
necessity  of  me, 

18.  The  intransitive  verb.  You  have  just  been 
studying  the  fact  that  some  action  verbs  express 
action  that  is  received  by  some  word  in  the  sentence, 
and  that  such  verbs  are  called  transitive.     Here  is  a 


28  THE  VERB 

sentence  in  which  there  is  a  different  kind  of  action 
verb : 

Mary  fell. 

How  is  this  action  verb  different  from  those  you 
have  just  studied?  You  see  instantly  that  the  action 
of  fell  is  not  received  by  any  other  word  in  the  sen- 
tence. Since  fell  does  not  pass  action  over  into  any 
other  word  in  the  sentence,  fell  is  called  an  intransitive 
verb.     Intransitive  means  not-passing-over. 

An  intransitive  verb  is  one  whose  action  is  not 
received  by  some  other  word  in  the  sentence. 

Action  verbs  as  a  whole,  then,  are  divided  into 
two  classes: 

(1)  Those  whose  action  is  received  by  some  other 
word  in  the  sentence.     (Transitive.) 

(2)  Those  whose  action  is  not  received  by  another 
word.     (Intransitive.) 

Transitive  verbs  possess  two  ways  of  expressing 
action,  according  to  whether  the  subject  acts  or  is 
acted  upon.  You  distinguish  these  ways  by  the  name 
voice,  as  you  learned,  and  you  determine  voice  by 
looking  carefully  at  the  subject.  If  the  subject  acts, 
the  verb  is  in  the  active  voice;  if  the  subject  is  acted 
upon,  the  verb  is  in  the  passive  voice.  You  need 
these  distinctions  because  two  ways  of  expression  are 
possible. 

But  the  intransitive  verb  possesses  only  one  way 
of  expressing  action,  for,  since  the  action  of  this  verb 
is  never  received,  the  subject  always  acts.     Intransi- 


TRANSITIVE  AND  INTRANSITIVE  29 

tlve  verbs,  therefore,  do  not  have  voice.  Of  course 
you  can  see  that  if  you  were  to  give  a  name  to  the 
way  in  which  the  intransitive  verb  expresses  action, 
you  would  say  that  all  intransitive  verbs  are  in  the 
active  voice. 

Exercise 

Tell  why  each  of  the  verbs  in  the  following 
sentences  is  intransitive. 

1.  The  fire  alarm  rang. 

2.  The  horses  ran  fast. 

3.  The  noise  of  the  guns  ceased. 

4.  I  awoke  early  this  morning. 

6.  He  hurried  from  the  house  and  jumped  into  the  car. 

6.  The  picture  hangs  on  the  wall. 

7.  The  lights  went  out. 

8.  The  crash  came  without  warning. 

Exercise 

Select  the  verbs  from  the  following  sentences 
and  tell  whether  they  are  transitive  or  intransitive. 
Give  also  the  voice  of  the  tiansitive  verbs. 

1.  I  threw  a  penny  to  the  organ-grinder. 

2.  The  attendance  is  taken  each  morning  at  school. 

3.  Jane  slipped  and  fell  and  broke  her  wrist. 

4.  The  bread  rose  too  high. 

5.  John  was  graduated  from  college  in  June. 

6.  Wagon- wheels  creak  on  cold  winter  days. 

7.  Harry  cranked  the  car. 

8.  Leaves  drop  in  autumn. 

9.  The  canoe  slipped  silently  through  the  water. 
10.  Railroad  time-tables  are  sometimes  changed. 


30  THE  VERB 

11.  The  books  crashed  to  the  floor. 

12.  The  speaker  was  introduced  by  the  chairman. 

13.  I  set  my  watch  at  noon. 

14.  I  believe  every  word  of  your  story. 

15.  Atlas  held  the  world  on  his  shoulders. 

16.  The  telegram  arrived  before  I  returned. 

17.  The  painter  fell  from  the  scaffold. 

From  a  magazine  like  "The  Literary  Digest' ' 
or  ''The  Independent' '  select  any  paragraph  of  ten 
lines  or  so  in  length.  Pick  out  the  verbs.  Tell  whether 
each  is  transitive  or  intransitive.  Give  the  voice  of 
the  transitive  verbs. 

Verb  forms,  sequence  of  tenses,  and  the  agreement  of  a  verb  with  its  subject,  are 
treated  in  chapter  XII. 


III.  THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH— The  Noun 

19.  What  the  noun  is.  A  boy  who  looks  about  him  on 
a  baseball  field  is  able  to  explain  to  one  who  is  un- 
familiar with  the  game  all  the  details  necessary  to  the 
understanding  of  the  game.  In  such  an  explanation 
he  will  use  the  words  diamondj  base,  short-stopj  curve, 
home-plate,  and  many  others.  As  he  uses  each  of 
these  words  he  points  out  or  describes  the  thing  or 
movement  each  names.  Words  which  name  things 
or  people  make  up  the  part  of  speech  called  the  noun. 

A  noun  is  the  name  of  a  person,  place,  or  thing. 

20.  Common  and  proper  noims.  A  boy  at  a  game 
of  baseball  sees  the  opposing  teams  come  running  to 
the  field.  *'Look/'  he  cries,  "there's  Slater,  the  best 
pitcher  in  the  league!  And  there's  Curtiss,  our 
short-stop!"  The  words  Slater  and  Curtiss  serve  as 
names  for  these  men.  Therefore  these  words  are 
nouns.  They  differ  from  the  nouns  diamond,  hose, 
and  home-plate.  Diamond,  base,  and  home-plate  name 
a  whole  class  of  things  that  are  more  or  less  ahke. 
Any  of  these  words  could  be  apphed  to  other  diamonds, 
other  bases,  other  home-plates.  Slater  and  Curtiss 
name  particular  men.  These  names  could  not  be 
applied  to  any  man  one  might  meet.  In  a  similar 
way,  New  York  and  New  Jersey  name  particular  states. 

The  noun  that  names  a  whole  class  of  persons, 
places,  or  things,  is  a  common  noun. 

(31) 


32  THE  NOUN 

Example:  ship,  man,  city.  Each  of  these  words 
names  a  whole  class  of  objects. 

The  noun  that  names  a  particular  one  of  a  class 
of  persons,  places,  or  things,  is  a  proper  noun. 

Example:  The  Constitution,  George  Washington, 
Cincinnati.  Each  of  these  words  names  a  particular 
one  of  its  class. 

Every  proper  noun  should  begin  with  a  capital 
letter.  This  fact  constitutes  the  chief  reason  why 
you  should  be  able  to  distinguish  between  a  common 
and  a  proper  noun. 

Exercise 

Select  each  of  the  nouns  in  the  following  sentences 
and  tell  whether  it  is  a  common  or  a  proper  noun : 

1.  Miles  Morgan  smiled  and  shook  his  head. 

2.  Sergeant  O'Hara  called  the  men  heroes. 

3.  It  was  his  plan  to  ride  until  he  reached  Massacre 
Mountain. 

4.  Grass  and  ferns  grew  around  the  spring. 

5.  The  family  always  sang  hymns  after  supper. 

6.  He  had  a  sword  that  his  great-grandfather  had 
worn  under  Washington. 

7.  George  came  to  his  feet  and  pointed  his  revolver 
steadily. 

8.  Human  companionship  gives  us  all  courage. 

9.  "A  small  band  of  Indians  is  on  your  trail,"  he  said; 
"Black  Wolf  and  his  scouts  are  in  the  band." 

10.  We  heard  the  clatter  of  steel  and  the  jingling  of 
harness  and  an  order  ringing  out  far  and  clear. 


PERSON  33 

11.  The  group  of  officers  in  the  tent  was  silent. 

12.  The  general  spoke.    "We  must  get  word  to  Captain 
Weldon  immediately,"  said  he. 

21.  Person.  Every  noun  names  (1)  the  speaker 
of  the  sentence,  or  (2)  the  person  spoken  to  in  the 
sentence,  or  (3)  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of  in  the 
sentence. 

(a)  I,  Marian  Allen,  am  here  to  represent  the  Girl 
Scouts. 

The  noun  Marian  Allen  in  this  sentence  names  the 
speaker.  When  a  noun  names  the  speaker,  the  noun 
is  said  to  be  in  the  first  person, 

(h)  Marian  Allen,  will  you  please  state  your  errand 
here? 

The  noun  Marian  Allen  in  this  sentence  names  the 
person  spoken  to.  When  a  noun  names  the  person 
spoken  to,  the  noun  is  said  to  be  in  the  second  person^ 

(c)  The  Girl  Scouts  chose  Marian  Allen  to  repre** 

sent  them. 

Marian  Allen  in  this  sentence  names  the  person 
spoken  of. 

(d)  Bring  me  that  book. 

Book  in  this  sentence  names  the  thing  spoken  of, 
When  a  noun  names  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of, 
the  noim  is  said  to  be  in  the  third  person. 
z 


34  THE  NOUN 

Exercise 

Tell  the  person  of  each  noun  in  the  following 
paragraph: 

[  Shall  I,  your  president,  not  tell  you  the  truth?  Will 
you,  the  citizens  of  a  great  republic,  not  listen  to  the  truth? 
There  is  only  one  path  for  a  righteous  nation  to  follow; 
that  is  the  path  of  justice. 

22.  Inflection.  A  change  in  the  form  of  a  word  is 
called  inflection.  A  word  is  said  to  be  inflected  when 
its  form  is  changed  to  show  number,  gender,  etc. 

23.  Number.  What,  to  your  mind,  is  the  difference 
between  desk  and  desks?     sword  and  swords? 

Desk  stands  for  one  object;  desks  for  more  than 
one.  Sword  stands  for  one  object;  swords  for  more 
than  one. 

To  tell  whether  a  word  stands  for  one  object, 
or  for  more  than  one,  is  to  tell  the  number  of  that 
word. 

!•  A  word  which  indicates  one  object  is  said  to  be  in 
the  singular  number.  Singular  means  denoting  one 
only. 

A  word  which  indicates  more  than  one  object  is 
said  to  be  in  the  plural  number.  Plural  means  denot- 
ing more  than  one. 

Most  plurals  are  formed  by  adding  s  or  es  to  the 
singular,  as: 


Singular 

Plural 

Singular 

Plural 

book 

books 

envelope 

envelopes 

box 

boxes 

grain 

grains 

IRREGULAR  PLURALS 


35 


Whether  you  add  es  instead  of  s  depends  upon 
whether  the  s  unites  readily  with  the  singular  ending. 
What  is  the  plural  of  box?  Boxs  is  hard  to  pronounce; 
boxes,  is  easy  to  pronounce.  Always  keep  this  idea 
in  mind  when  forming  plurals. 

Exercise 
Give  the  plurals  of  the  following  nouns: 
glass        bed  wagon     knob     store  magazine 

switch     pole         paper      house     fox  track 

church    picture     chair       gate       grammar    calendar 

In  forming  some  plurals  you  must  observe  excep- 
tions to  the  general  rule.  To  learn  these  intelligently 
you  must  know  that  certain  letters  of  the  alphabet 
are  vowels,  and  the  others  consonants.  A,  e,  i,  o,  and  u, 
are  the  vowels;  all  the  rest  are  consonants. 
For  example : 


24.  The  plural  of  nouns  ending  in  y. 


Singular 

Plural 

Singular 

Plural 

lady 

ladies 

misery 

miseries 

story 

stories 

city 

cities 

tragedy 

tragedies 

outcry 

outcries 

variety 

varieties 

discovery 

discoveries 

activity 

activities 

memory 

memories 

security 

securities 

anxiety 

anxieties 

ecstasy 

ecstasies 

penalty 

penalties 

energy 

energies 

fancy 

fancies 

fly 

flies 

company 

companies 

Now  study  the  singulars  for  a  moment  and  see 
whether  there  is  any  resemblance  upon  which  you 
can  form  a  rule  that  will  guide  you.     Each  singular 


36 


THE   NOUN 


ends  in  y.  In  each  case  the  y  is  preceded  by  a  conso- 
nant. These  are  the  resemblances  in  the  singular 
forms.  Note  that  in  the  plurals  the  y  in  each  case 
changes  to  i,  and  then  es  is  added  in  the  usual  way. 
Can  you  not  now  see  a  guiding  rule? 

Nouns   ending  in   y   preceded  by  a  consonant, 
change  the  y  to  /,  and  add  es  to  form  the  plural. 


Singular 

Plural 

Singular 

Plural 

monkey 

monkeys 

survey 

surveys 

key 

keys 

outlay 

outlays 

doorway 

doorways 

convoy 

convoys 

mainstay 

mainstays 

delay 

delays 

essay 

essays 

chimney 

chimneys 

Do    you 

note    any 

resemblance 

between    these 

singulars  and  those  of  the  words  in  the  preceding 
paragraph?  These  singulars,  like  those  above,  end  in  y. 
What  difference  between  the  two  do  you  note?  The 
final  y  of  the  words  in  the  earlier  group  was  preceded 
by  a  consonant;  the  final  y  of  the  words  in  this  group 
is  preceded  by  a  vowel. 

When  the  y  is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  the  plural 
is  formed  in  the  usual  way. 

25.  The  plural  of  nouns  ending  in  /. 


Singular 

Plural 

Singular 

Plural 

loaf 

loaves 

wife 

wives 

self 

selves 

beef 

beeves 

thief 

thieves 

half 

halves 

knife 

knives 

calf 

calves 

leaf 

leaves 

sheaf 

sheaves 

elf 

elves 

life 

lives 

shelf 

shelves 

wolf 

wolves 

IRRFGULAR  PLURALS  37 

In  studying  these  singulars  you  note  that  all 
the  nouns  end  in  /.  To  form  the  plural,  each  noun 
changes  the  /  to  v  and  adds  es.  These  nouns  are 
f'xceptions  to  the  general  rule.  All  the  other  nouns 
ending  in  /  or  fe  fomi  the  plural  in  the  usual  way. 
For  example : 

Singular  Plural 

belief  beliefs 

relief  reliefs 

26.  Change  of  vowel  in  plural.  Some  nouns  change 
the  vowel  of  the  singular  in  order  to  form  the  plural 
instead  of  following  the  usual  custom.  You  simply 
have  to  learn  such  plurals.     Some  of  them  are: 

Singular        Plural  Singular        Plural 

mouse  mice  foot  feet 

tooth  teeth  louse  lice 

woman        women  goose  geese 

27.  Plural  of  nouns  ending  in  o.  Sometimes  it  is 
hard  to  tell  whether  nouns  ending  in  o  should  add  s 
or  es.  This  has  to  be  learned  through  practice.  Some 
of  those  w  hich  add  es  are : 

mosquito     negro  echo  tomato        potato 

motto  volcano       cargo  hero 

Others,  which  add  merely  s,  are: 

dynamo  memento  folio  piano 

cameo  halo  alto  solo 


38  THE  NOUN 

28.  Miscellaneous  plurals.  Some  nouns  have  the 
same  form  for  the  plural  as  for  the  singular;   as, 

trout  sheep  heathen 

deer  swine  salmon 

An  old  plural  survives  in  the  following  plurals: 
Singular  Plural  Singular       Plural 

child  children  ox  oxen 

maid  maidens  brother      brethren 

Brother  has  also  the  plural  brothers. 

Some  nouns  possess  a  plural  form  only.     Some 
of  these  are: 

scissors  politics  tidings 

riches  victuals  athletics 

thanks  trousers  gymnastics 

Some  nouns  have  no  plural: 

electricity  poverty 

rheumatism  gold 

air    (atmosphere) 

29.  Plural  of  compounds.  Sometimes  by  uniting 
two  or  more  words  a  compound  noun  is  formed. 
Compound  nouns  usually  form  the  plural  from  the 
principal  word  without  changing  the  modifying  word. 
For  example : 

Singular  Plural 

blackboard  blackboards 

schoolhouse  schoolhouses 

bookworm  bookworms 

brother-in-law  brothers-in-law 


IRREGULAR  PLURALS  39 

Singular  Plural 

commander-in-chief  commanders-in-chief 

passer-by  passers-by 

Englishman  Englishmen 

A  few  compounds  are  irregular;    as, 
Singular  Plural 

manservant  menservants 

German  Germans 

The  plural  of  compound  nouns  ending  in  ful  is 
formed  by  adding  s  to  the  last  syllable: 

Singular  Plural  Singular  Plural 

spoonful  spoonfuls  cupful  cupfuls 

To  indicate  that  more  than  one  spoon  or  cup  is 
filled,  say  spoons  full,  cups  full. 

30.  Plural  of  letters  and  figures.  The  plurals  of 
letters  and  figures  are  formed  by  placing  an  apostrophe 
before  the  s:   Vs,  5's. 

3L  Plural  of  proper  nouns.  You  will  need  to  study 
especially  the  plurals  of  proper  nouns.  The  plural 
of  Mr.  Vail  is  the  Messrs.  Vail,  though  it  is  possible 
to  speak  of  the  two  Mr.  Vails.  The  plural  of  Miss 
Lee  is  the  Misses  Lee,  though  it  is  possible  to  say  the 
two  Miss  Lees.  But  for  more  than  one  Mrs.  Lee, 
there  is  but  one  form,  the  Mrs.  Lees. 

The  plurals  of  proper  nouns  are  formed  in  the 
same  way  as  those  of  common  nouns. 

32.  Foreign  plurals.  In  addition  to  these  there  are 
many  nouns  which  form  their  plural  after  a  foreign 


40 


THE  NOUN 


mod.el.     You  must  give  them  special  study.     For  ex- 
an^ple : 


Singular 

Plural 

Singular 

Plural 

tableau 

tableaux 

memorandum 

memoranda 

beau 

beaux 

stratiun 

strata 

erratum 

errata 

phenomenon 

phenomena 

alumnus 

alumni 

alumna 

alumnae 

analysis 

analyses 

parenthesis 

parentheses 

vertebra 

vertebrae 

crisis 

crises 

basis 

bases 

axis 

axes 

appendix 

appendices 

33.  Plural  of  collective  nouns.  There  is  a  group 
of  nouns,  which,  although  singular  in  form,  denotes  a 
number  of  individuals.  Such  nouns  are  sometimes 
called  collective;    they  may  all  be  used  in  the  plural.* 


club 

group 

team 

class 

audience 

dozen 

congregation 

pair 

nation 

society 

family 

Grammatical  facts  like  these  have  to  be  memorized 
so  that  you  can  use  them.  In  case  of  doubt  about  a 
plural  form,  however,  you  should  always  look  up  the 
noun  in  the  dictionary.  Directly  after  the  noun,  if 
the  plural  is  irregular,  you  will  find  the  plural  form 
given.  If  the  plural  is  formed  in  the  regular  way,  by 
adding  s  or  es,  no  mention  of  it  will  be  made. 


*  For  use  with  verbs  see  p.  144. 


PLURALS 


41 


Exercise 

Write  the  plural  of  the  following  words 


picture 

chart 

camera 

negro 

crisis 

variety 

engraving 

doily 

biscuit 

bat 

hospital 

bookcase 

calf 

essay 

piano 

looking-glass 

rug 

trousers 

scout 

German 

Irishman 

clay 

Turk 

football 

armchair 

typewriter 

dress 

mattress 

waist 

college 

pocket  book 

toast 

hay-rake 

pillow 

couch 

Miss  Rogers 

delay 

lounge 

lawyer 

beau 

bureau 

shelf 

maid 

diamond 

village 

sofa-pillow 

dollar 

umpire 

fatality 

postman 

Write  from  memory,  in  sentences,  five  words 
which  possess  only  singular  forms. 

Use  in  sentences :   news,  sheep,  heathen. 

Tell  the  number  of  each  noun  in  the  following 
sentences : 

1.  Lucy  bought  five  dozens  of  buttons. 

2.  These  shoes  are  worth  three  dollars  the  pair. 

3.  The  ponies  leaped  over  the  gravelly  gi'ound. 

4.  There  are  three  I's  in  parallel. 

5.  Please  give  these  letters  to  the  Misses  Sackville. 

6.  Two  packages  have  arrived  by  post  for  Mr.  Roberts. 

7.  The  farmer  had  already  yoked  his  oxen   to  the 
plough. 

8.  What  one  sheep  does  all  the  other  sheep  will  do. 

9.  Is  the  mail  in  yet? 

10.  Make  your  8's  plain,  without  any  flourishes. 

11.  The  lads  took  their  spades  and  went  to  work. 

12.  The  collision  resulted  in  bent  fenders  and  damaged 
headlights. 


42  THE  NOUN 

13.  A  griddle  heated  by  electricity  means  hot  cakes 
without  trouble. 

14.  What  kinds  of  oil  have  you? 

15.  The  starters  on  these  cars  are  guaranteed. 

Turn  to  the  advertising  pages  of  some  newspaper. 
Make  a  list  of  twenty  singular  nouns  and  twenty 
plural  nouns  which  you  find  in  these  pages. 

34.  Gender.  Nouns  are  said  to  have  gender  accord- 
ing to  whether  they  name  a  male,  a  female,  or  a  thing. 
A  noun  which  names  a  male,  is  said  to  be  masculine 
in  gender;  a  noun  which  names  a  female,  is  said  to  be 
feminine  in  gender;  a  notm  which  names  a  thing,  is 
said  to  be  neuter  in  gender. 

35.  The   work  of   the  noim — the  nominative.     The 

noun  has  many  duties  in  the  sentence.  One  of  these 
is  to  act  as  subject.  In  the  sentence,  The  bridge  fell, 
the  whole  subject  is  The  bridge;  the  fact  that  the 
noun  bridge  is  the  word  in  the  subject  that  carries  the 
force  and  does  the  real  subject  work  is  evident.  In 
The  cheerful,  whistling  boy  made  me  smile,  the  whole 
subject  is  The  cheerful,  whistling  boy.  Yet  the  fact 
that  the  noun  boy  is  the  word  that  does  the  real  sub- 
ject work  is  evident.  Whether  a  subject  consists  of 
one  word  or  more  than  one,  there  is  always  a  noun 
that  can  be  separated  as  doing  the  actual  subject 
work.  The  word  subject,  then,  sometimes  refers  to 
the  whole  subject,  and  sometimes  to  the  one  noun 
that  is  doing  the  actual  work.  In  this  text,  from 
this  point  on,  the  word  subject  is  used  to  refer  to  the 


THE  NOMINATIVE  CASE  43 

single  noun,  or,  in  a  compound  subject,  to  whatever 
words  are  doing  the  actual  subject  work  of  naming. 

As  stated  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  the  noun 
has  several  duties.  According  to  the  duty  which  the 
noun  is  performing,  the  noun  is  said  to  have  case. 
There  are  three  cases:  the  nominative,  the  possessive, 
and  the  objective.  Certain  uses  of  the  noun  are 
said  to  be  in  certain  cases. 

A  noun  used  as  subject  is  said  to  be  in  the  nom- 
inative case. 

In  the  sentence,  John,  please  come  here,  John  is 
used  as  an  expression  of  address. 

A  noun  used  to  express  direct  address  is  said 
to  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

My  name  is  Walter. 

Here  you  see  that  the  noun  name  is  used  as  the 
subject.  To  find  how  the  noun  Walter  is  used,  divide 
the  sentence  up  into  subject  and  predicate.  Here,  my 
name  is  the  subject;  is  Walter  is  the  predicate.  Walter 
surely  is  part  of  the  predicate;  it  also  bears  a  certain 
relationship  to  the  subject.  Walter  and  name,  the 
subject,  mean  exactly  the  same  thing.  Walter,  there- 
fore, is  said  to  be  a  predicate  nominative,  and  is  in  the 
nominative  case. 

A  noun  in  the  predicate  which  means  exactly 
the  same  as  the  subject  is  called  a  predicate  nomina- 
tive or  predicate  noun. 


44  THE   NOUN 

Exercise 

Select  the  nouns  used  as  predicate  nominatives 
in  this  group  of  sentences: 

1.  Our  hurrying  was  empty  bustle,  after  ail. 

2.  This  invention  is  the  answer  to  all  our  difficulties. 

3.  Labor  is  life's  sweetest  joy. 

4.  The  prize  was  a  five-dollar  gold-piece. 

5.  My  favorite  book  is  '^  Huckleberry  Finn." 

6.  New  York  is  America's  greatest  market. 

7.  The  river  at  night  is  a  smooth  piece  of  glass, 
The  fog  a  faint  cloud  that  bends  o'er  it; 

But  the  fresh  morning  air  makes  a  gay  rippling 

mass. 
And  drives  water  and  cloud-mist  before  it. 

8.  Gerhardt  was  a  German  shepherd  boy. 

9.  The  road  is  a  winding  path. 

Exercise 

Tell  how  each  noun  is  used  in  the  following  sen- 
tences. Do  not  name  the  case  as  you  perform  the 
exercise;  merely  tell  how  the  noun  is  used,  or  the 
function  of  that  noun.  Function  means  ' 'special 
work.'' 

1.  The  train  has  come,  Edith. 

2.  My  basket  fell. 

3.  My  hand  hurts. 

4.  Mary  is  my  sister. 

5.  That  horse  ran  away. 

6.  Mr.  Morris  is  our  choir-leader. 

7.  A  rock  shd  and  struck  us. 

8.  Mary  Long  is  organist  here. 

9.  My  father  is  ill. 


THE  POSSESSIVE  CASE  45 

10.  Our  teacher  has  gone  away. 

11.  Oh,  John!     Don't  run  so! 

12.  Time  flies  swiftly. 

13.  My  birds  are  my  pets. 

14.  Clocks  tick  loudly. 

15.  Squeaky  noises  annoy  me. 

16.  Barbed  wire  fences  are  a  nuisance. 

17.  Where  are  you  going,  my  pretty  maid? 

18.  Here,  Fido!  puppies  must  eat! 

19.  His  weapon  was  a  large  rifle. 

36.  The  possessive  case.^     In  the  sentence, 

John's  hat  is  here, 

there  are  two  nouns.  Hat  is  the  noun  used  as  subject. 
John's  tells  whose  hat  is  here;  John's  also  tells  who 
possesses  the  hat.  This  is  another  important  use  of  the 
noun — to  show  possession. 

Nouns  which  show  possession  are  said  to  be  in 
the  possessive  case.     Here  are  examples : 

1.  My  sister's  flowers  have  come. 

2.  The  horse's  mane  is  long. 

3.  The  bee's  sting  is  painful. 

4.  The  teacher's  voice  is  agreeable. 

5.  The  carpenter's  work  is  done. 

These  examples  show  that  the  form  of  the  noun 
in  the  possessive  case  is  a  little  different  from  that 
of  the  nominative.  The  possessive  case  is  distinguished 
from  the  nominative  by  the  addition  of  an  apostrophe 
and  s  to  the  nominative  form. 


*  The  possessive  case  is  sometimes  called  the  genitive  case. 


46  THE  NOUN 

Exercise 

Select  the  nouns  in  the  possessive  case: 

1.  Mary's  mother  is  ill. 

2.  That  man's  day  is  always  spoiled  by  laziness. 

3.  The  clergyman's  advice  helped  me. 

4.  Edward's  messenger  did  not  reach  us. 

5.  Elsie's  desire  was  not  granted  by  her  mother. 

6.  Miss  Mack's  progress  has  been  remarkable. 

7.  Murray's  team  brought  us  from  the  station. 

8.  Nobody's  business  is  everybody's  business. 

9.  The  children's  toys  lay  strewn  about  the  floor. 
10.  The  boy's  father  insisted  that  he  should  obey. 

Only  nouns  referring  to  living  beings  are  usually 
put  in  the  possessive  case.  The  possessive  of  things 
is  usually  denoted  in  the  way  indicated  below. 

Bad:     The  magazine's  cover  had  been  torn. 
Good:     The  cover  of  the  magazine  had  been  torn. 

Bad:  The  roof's  shingles  had  been  gradually 
dropping  off. 

Good:  The  shingles  on  the  roof  had  been  gradually 
dropping  off. 

Bad:     The  mountain's  top  is  covered  with  snow. 
Good:     The  top  of  the  mountain  is  covered  with 
snow. 

A  possessive  which  is  awkward,  even  though  it 
refers  to  a  group  of  persons,  should  not  be  used.  For 
example : 

Bad:  The  class's  average  was  eighty-five  per 
cent. 


THE  POSSESSIVE  CASE  47 

Good:  The  average  of  the  class  was  eighty-five 
per  cent. 

If  the  noun  ends  in  the  letter  s,  the  apostrophe 
and  s  may  be  added  in  the  same  way  to  form  the 
possessive  case.     Example: 

Curtis's  bat  is  lying  in  the  yard. 

Frequently,  however,  the  possessive  of  a  noun 
ending  in  s  is  formed  by  merely  adding  the  apostrophe. 
Example : 

Curtis'  bat  is  lying  in  the  yard. 

The  possessive  of  plurals  ending  in  s  is  made  by 
adding  an  apostrophe  to  the  plural  form.    Examples: 

The  girls'  association  made  many  Christmas  gifts  for 
poor  children. 

The  Mothers'  Pension  bill  received  hearty  support. 

The  possessive  of  plurals  not  ending  in  s  is  formed 
by  adding  an  apostrophe  and  s.     Example: 
The  children's  clothes  were  torn. 

Exercise 

Select  the  nouns  in  the  possessive  case : 

1.  The  neighbors  like  the  Joneses'  children. 

2.  Men's  voices  are  lower  than  women's  voices. 

3.  Thomas's  father  gave  him  a  motor  cycle. 

4.  We  shall  call  at  the  Misses  Roberts'  home  this 
evening. 

5.  Mr.  Wells's  honesty  and  ability  were  known  to  all. 

6.  The  Trumans'  new  car  stood  in  front  of  the  house. 

7.  The  fame  of  Theodore  Fairbanks'  family  has  spread 
far  and  wide. 


48  THE   NOUN 

Exercise 

Select  all  the  possessives  in  the  following  sen- 
tences.    Tell  whether  the  nouns  are  singular  or  plural. 

1.  Boys'  games  are  more  attractive  than  girls'  games. 

2.  Odysseus'  men  were  detained  at  Circe's  palace  by 
trickery. 

3.  Francis'  talent  for  drawing  was  the  source  of  both 
pleasure  and  profit  to  him. 

4.  The  librarian's  kindness  extends  to  every  one. 

5.  The  engineer's  presence  of  mind  saved  many  lives. 

6.  The  pupils  recognized  the  teacher's  fairness. 

7.  Mr.  Yates's  income  amounts  to  over  a  million  dollars 
yearly. 

8.  The  Ladies'  Aid  Society  will  meet  at  seven  o'clock. 

9.  Mr.  Brander  Matthews'  book  on  the  short  story  is 
interesting. 

10.  Charles'  tennis  racket  has  disappeared. 

11.  Laborers'  wages  are  higher  now  than  they  used  to  be. 

Exercise 

Insert  the  apostrophe  and  add  s  wherever  needed 
in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Charles  report  was  better  than  James. 

2.  We  stopped  at  Candor  for  a  few  minutes  rest. 

3.  The  matrons  objection  to  visitors  made  the  hospital 
unpopular. 

4.  Burns  poetry  was  greatly  admired  by  James  Whit- 
comb  Riley. 

5.  Georges  companions  always  enjoyed  his  tales  of  the 
fun  at  the  boys  school  which  he  attended. 

6.  They  use  goats  milk  instead  of  cows  milk  in  Switzer- 
land. 


THE  OBJECTIVE  CASE  49 

37.  The  objective  case — the  direct  object. 

John  broke  his  slate. 

From  previous  study  you  know  that  John  is  the 
subject  and  that  broke  his  slate  is  the  whole  predicate. 
You  know  that  broke  is  the  part  of  the  predicate  that 
expresses  action.  Broke  sends  this  action  to  the 
word  slate.  If  you  were  to  tell,  then,  what  slate  does 
in  this  sentence,  you  would  say  that  slate  names  the 
receiver  of  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb  broke. 
A  single  word  will  say  all  that  for  you.  The  word  in 
the  sentence  which  receives  the  action  directly  from  the 
verb  is  called  the  object  of  that  verb.  Often,  because 
the  noun  receives  the  action  directly,  you  will  call  it 
the  direct  object. 

The  direct  object  of  a  verb  names  the  receiver  of 
the  action  expressed  by  the  verb. 

All  nouns  used  as  direct  objects  are  said  to  be 
in  the  objective^  case. 

Exercise 

Select  all  the  direct  objects  in  the  following 
sentences : 

1.  Rex  passed  his  examination. 

2.  The  hail  broke  the  glass  of  the  wind  shield. 

3.  The  racers  broke  all  former  records. 

4.  The  Legislature  passed  the  Child  Labor  Bill. 

5.  We  use  hard  pencils. 

6.  The  chauffeur  mended  the  tire. 

7.  The  thief  returned  the  purse. 


'  The  objective  case  is  sometimes  called  the  accusative  case. 
4 


50  THE  NOUN 

8.  Who  started  this  war? 

9.  I  take  my  lunch  every  day. 

10.  John  acquired  the  bad  habit  of  talking  in  school. 

11.  I  have  lost  a  dollar. 

12.  He  dreaded  the  sandstorms  of  the  West. 

13.  The  girls  wrote  themes  this  morning. 

14.  Wright  perfected  the  airplane. 

15.  The  real  inventors  rarely  get  the  credit  for  their 
work. 

16.  I  bought  two  tickets. 

17.  Business  men  send  many  letters. 

18.  Submarines  destroy  large  ships. 

Write  ten  sentences  of  your  own,  employing  the 
direct  object.  Describe,  for  example,  what  you 
would  see  if  you  were  looking  through  the  door  into 
the  gymnasium,  or  into  a  kitchen,  or  into  a  library. 

38.  The  indirect  object.^ 

Father  gave  Mary  the  basket. 

Father  is  the  subject  of  this  sentence;  basket  is 
a  noun  used  as  direct  object  for  it  receives  direct 
action  from  the  verb  gave. 

What  about  the  noun  Mary?  Is  or  is  not  Mary 
affected  by  the  action  of  the  verb  gave?  Certainly 
basket  receives  the  direct  action  of  being  transferred 
from  Father  to  Mary,  Mary,  as  the  result  of  the 
direct  action,  has  a  basket.  If  Father  had  not  given 
the  basket y  Mary  would  not  have  received  it.  So  you 
distinguish  the  action  sent  to  Mary  from  the  action 
sent  to  basket  by  calling  the  action  sent  to  Mary  the 

*The  indirect  object  is  sometimes  said  to  be  in  the  dative  case. 


THE   INDIRECT  OBJECT  51 

indirect  action  of  the  verb,  and  the  action  sent  to 
basket  the  direct  action  of  the  verb.  Consequently, 
since  the  noun  Mary  receives  the  indirect  action  of 
the  verb,  Mary  is  called  the  indirect  object,  by  the 
same  reasoning  as  that  by  which  the  basket  is  called  the 
direct  object. 

Indirect  objects  usually  follow  verbs  meaning 
to  send,  give,  show,  lend,  grant,  refuse,  forgive,  get, 
buy,  hand,  and  the  like. 

The  noim  used  as  indirect  object  is  said  to  be 
in  the  objective  case. 

Examples  of  the  indirect  object  follow: 

(1)  Please  show  John  the  house. 

(2)  The  boys  gave  the  team  a  rousing  cheer. 

(3)  You  sent  Mrs.  Hart  the  wrong  bill. 

(4)  Esther  gave  the  baby  medicine. 

(5)  Mother  sends  Katie  a  check  for  her  board. 

(6)  Father  buys  Caroline  new  music. 

Note  that  the  noun  used  as  indirect  object  never 
is  preceded  by  any  such  word  as  to  or  for.  Such  >ords 
may  be  understood  by  the  reader  of  the  sentence, 
but  they  are  never  expressed  before  the  indirect 
object.^ 

Exercise 

Select  the  indirect  objects: 

1.  Hand  the  chauffeur  that  screwdriver,  please. 

2.  Father  gave  Dan  more  money. 

3.  Father  gave  more  money  to  Dan. 


For  the  government  of  nouna  by  prepoeitione  Bee  f>ection  41. 


52  THE  NOUN 

4.  Do  not  refuse  John  this  request. 

5.  This  man  owes  Mr.  Richards  money. 

6.  She  offered  her  sister  a  good  position. 

7.  Will  you  lend  your  employer  your  car? 

8.  Please  sell  Mrs.  Lee  an  embroidered  tablecloth. 

9.  I  can  get  the  baby  his  medicine. 

10.  Mother  did  Miss  Stevens  a  great  service. 

11.  I  promised  father  that  I  would  give  Lucy  this  letter. 

Write  sentences  of  your  own,  using  an  indirect 
object  after  each  of  the  following  verbs:  promise, 
send,  give,  get,  lend,  owe,  offer,  grant,  forgive,  refuse,  sell.^ 

39.  The  appositive. 

Study  this  sentence: 

Henry,  my  brother,  has  bought  a  new  launch. 

You  can  dispose  of  all  but  one  of  the  nouns  in 
this  sentence  by  means  of  what  you  have  already 
learned.  The  exception  is  the  word  brother.  The 
word  brother  is  plainly  put  in  here  to  explain  the 
word  Henry.  Brother  is  not  the  subject  of  the  sen- 
tence; Henry  is  clearly  the  subject.  Brother  is  said 
to  be  in  apposition  with  the  subject,  Henry. 

An  appositive  is  a  noun  used  to  make  clear  another 
noun  that  denotes  the  same  person,  place,  or  thing. 


^  Additional  uses  of  the  noun  in  the  objective  case  are  the  objective  complement, 
the  cognate  object,  the  secondary  object,  and  the  retained  object.  Examples  of  these 
uses  are: 

Objective  complement:  They  named  George  captain. 
Cognate  object:  They  slept  the  sleep  of  the  dead. 

Secondary  object:  He  asked  me  the  number  of  our  telephone. 

Retained  object:  Henry  was  given  the  position. 

None  of  these  uses  presents  any  functional  difficulty;  there  is  no  use,  therefore,  of 
burdening  the  student  with  classifications. 


THE  APPOSITIVE  53 

The  appositive  is  said  to  be  in  the  same  case  as  the 
noun  with  which  it  is  in  apposition. 

An  appositive  is  usually  set  off  from  the  rest  of 
the  sentence  by  commas. 

An  example  of  an  appositive  which  need  not  be 
set  off  by  commas  occurs  when  the  sentence  is  of  this 
kind: 

Professor  Ellis,  this  is  my  son  Robert. 


IV.  THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH— The  Preposition 

40.  What  the  preposition  is.  In  order  to  under- 
stand one  of  the  commonest  uses  of  the  noun,  you 
must  here  learn  another  part  of  speech.  The  duty 
of  this  part  of  speech  is  to  show  relationship. 

The  car  crashed  over  the  embankment. 

If  you  separate  from  this  sentence  the  words 
which  really  carry  the  idea  of  what  happened,  you 
select  three:  car,  crashed,  embankment.  The  relation- 
ship between  car  and  crashed  you  know;  car  is  the 
subject,  crashed  the  predicate  of  the  sentence.  But 
what  is  the  relationship  between  crashed  and  embank- 
ment? There  are  several  possibilities.  The  car  may 
have  gone  up,  down,  around,  or  over  the  embank- 
nient.  The  word  over  in  the  sentence  tells  just  what 
is  needed,  and  in  this  way  defines  the  relationship 
between  crashed  and  embankment.  Over  and  other 
words  performing  a  like  duty  are  prepositions. 

A  preposition  shows  the  relationship  between  a 
noun  and  some  other  word  in  the  sentence. 

The  preposition  is  said  to  govern  the  noun  with 
which  it  is  used.  To  govern  is  used  here  as  a  briefer 
way  of  saying  to  show  relationship. 

A  noun  governed  by  a  preposition  is  said  to  be 
in  the  objective  case. 

(54) 


THE  PREPOSITION 


55 


Here  are  the  prepositions  most  frequently  used: 


about 

by 

over 

above 

concerning 

save 

across 

despite 

since 

after 

down 

through 

against 

during 

throughout 

along 

ere 

tiU 

amid 

except 

to 

among 

excepting 

toward 

around 

for 

under 

before 

from 

until 

behind 

in 

unto 

below 

into 

up 

beside 

near 

with 

between 

of 

within 

beyond 

off 

without 

but 

on 

Exercise 

Select  from  the  following  sentences  the  preposi- 
tions and  the  nouns  which  they  govern: 

1.  Let  us  walk  around  the  block. 

2.  I  saw  her  name  on  the  list  just  above  my  name. 

3.  The  girls  of  our  class  are  without  exception  popular. 

4.  There  will  be  none  of  my  friends  there  except  Mary. 

5.  Pretty  cottages  were  built  on  the  bank  of  the  river. 

6.  Everyone  has  gone  to  church  but  Robert. 

7.  He  fought  bravely  imtil  the  end  of  the  horrible 
struggle. 

8.  I  have  waited  against  my  will  since  eight  o'clock. 

9.  Bobbie  chased  Rover  down  the  lane. 

10.  Sit  here  beside  grandmother. 

11.  Four  boys  besides  Tom  reported  for  scout  duty. 


56  THE  PREPOSITION 

12.  Notwithstanding  my  objections,  I  was  taken  to  the 
hospital. 

13.  The  fish  escaped  despite  my  efforts. 

14.  All  the  men  save  Brutus  did  what  they  did  in  envy 
of  great  Caesar. 

There  are  certain  combinations  of  words  which 
show  relationship  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  prepo- 
sitions do,  and  hence  these  combinations  are  called 
prepositions.  * 

Here  are  some  of  them:  In  spite  of,  in  front  o// 
for  the  sake  of,  in  regard  to,^  according  to,  by  way  of, 
instead  of. 

When  out  of  occurs  in  a  sentence  like  this:  Mary 
helped  me  out  of  the  car,  out  of  is  regarded  as  a  prep- 
osition of  this  kind. 

Exercise 

Use  each  of  these  combinations  in  a  sentence 
of  your  own.  Exchange  your  sentences  for  those  of 
one  of  your  classmates,  and  select  from  his  sentences 
the  noun  governed  by  the  preposition.  Name  in  each 
case  the  word  to  which  the  noun  is  related  by  the 
preposition. 

Try  to  think  of  at  least  three  other  combinations 
that  are  used  as  prepositions.     There  are  many  more. 

41.  Case   of  noun  governed  by  a  preposition.      In 

the  beginning  of  the  chapter  you  read  that  learning 
the  preposition  would  introduce  you  to  one  of  the 
commonest  uses  of  the  noun.      The  use  of  the  noun 

^In  back  of  is  not  to  be  used  for  behind  or  hack  of,  although  in  front  #/is  in  good  use, 
21/1  regards  to  instead  of  iri  regard  to  should  be  avoided. 


THE  PREPOSITIONAL  PHRASE  57 

governed  by  a  preposition  must  be  grouped  with  the  other 
uses  of  the  noun  in  the  objective  case. 

42.  The  prepositional  phrase.  The  preposition  and 
the  noun  which  it  governs  are  usually  referred  to 
together  as  a  prepositional  phrase. 

43.  Difference  between  a  phrase  and  a  clause. 
Some  time  ago  you  learned  that  a  certain  group  of 
words  is  called  a  clause.  The  difference  between  the 
group  of  words  called  a  phrase  and  the  group  of  words 
called  a  clause  is  simply  this: 

44.  A  group  of  related  words,  without  a  subject  and 
predicate,  doing  the  work  of  a  single  part  of  speech, 
is  called  a  phrase, 

45.  A  division  of  a  sentence  containing  a  subject  and 
predicate  of  its  own  is  called  a  clause. 

Exercise 

Select  the  phrases  and  the  clauses  in  the  following 
sentences : 

1.  Daniel  Boone  was  born  in  Fennsyhania. 

2.  Lancelot  waited  for  his  antagonist,  and  then  hurled 
his  force  against  him. 

3.  When  thej-  reached  tjie  lists,  the  young  knight  was 
overjoyed  by  the  gorgeous  sight  that  met  his  eyes  in  the 
meadow. 

4.  When  the  wind  shook  the  leaves  on  the  trees,  he 
trembled. 

5.  At  sunset  Brother  Goat  placed  the  blackened  doll 
near  the  well  and  run. 


58  THE  PREPOSITION 

Exercise 

Select  all  the  nouns  governed  by  prepositions 
in  these  sentences.     Name  the  case  of  these  nouns. 

1.  The  lights  in  the  shop  windows  threw  a  broad  glare 
across  the  ice  on  the  pavements,  and  the  lights  from  the 
lamp-posts  created  strange  shadows. 

2.  The  keen  wind  swept  through  the  cracks. 

3.  Single  rows  of  new  houses  stood  at  different  angles 
across  from  a  field. 

4.  The  carriage  dragged  its  way  through  pools  of  water. 

5.  With  your  warrant-papers  and  your  badges,  you 
can  arrest  Loring  easily. 

6.  At  the  sound  of  wheels  on  the  gravel,  the  farmhouse 
door  opened. 

7.  We  gave  the  man  an  excuse  without  any  trouble. 

8.  A  murmur  of  admiration  ran  through  the  crowd. 

9.  The  fire  crept  under  the  eaves  and  ignited  the  roof 
of  the  house. 

10.  Ida  has  visited  her  friends  in  their  home. 

11.  Heffiefinger  slipped  over  the  cross-rails,  hung  for  an 
instant  by  his  hands,  and  then  dropped  into  the  center  of  the 
fighting  mob  on  the  floor. 

12.  The  arbor  is  his  favorite  place  for  study. 

13.  Levitt  continued  in  the  employ  of  the  company  in 
the  capacity  of  bookkeeper  for  many  years. 

14.  You  can  catch  a  glimpse  of  the  flower-bordered 
walks  of  Trinity  Hospital. 


V.     THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH— The  Pronoun 

46.  What  a  pronoim  is. 

John  put  John's  hat  on  the  chair,  and  turned  to  open 
John's  mail.  Then  John's  mother  called  John,  and  John 
responded. ' 

What  is  the  trouble  with  this  statement? 
Compare  it  with  the  following : 

John  put  his  hat  on  the  chair,  and  turned  to  open  his 
mail.     Then  his  mother  called  him,  and  he  responded. 

Note  that  the  form  of  the  word  used  instead  of 
John  or  John's  is  changed  according  to  the  use  in  the 
sentence. 

A  word  used  instead  of  a  noim  is  a  pronoun. 
Pro  means  instead  of;  the  word,  then,  actually  means 
''instead  of  a  noun." 

47.  The  forms  of  the  pronoun.  Suppose  John  is 
your  own  name.  You  will  then  change  the  state- 
ment as  follows: 

/  put  my  hat  down  on  the  chair,  and  turned  to  open  my 
mail.     Then  my  mother  called  me,  and  /  responded. 

Suppose  you  are  speaking  of  yourself  and  your 
brother.  You  will  then  change  the  statement  as 
follows : 

We  put  our  hats  down  on  the  chair  and  turned  to  open 
our  mail.     Then  our  mother  called  us,  and  we  responded. 

(59) 


60  THE   PRONOUN 

Suppose  you  are  speaking  of  two  of  your  friends. 
You  will  then  change  the  statement  as  follows: 

.    They  put  their  hats  down  on  the  chair,  and  turned  to  open 
their  mail.    Then  their  mother  called  them  and  they  responded. 

Suppose  you  are  speaking  of  a  friend  whose  name 
is  Lucy  instead  of  John.  You  will  then  change  the 
statement  thus: 

Lucy  put  her  hat  down  on  the  chair,  and  turned  to  open 
her  mail.     Then  her  mother  called  her,  and  she  responded. 

From  the  changes  made  in  this  statement,  accord- 
ing to  what  you  wish  to  express,  you  draw  the  con- 
clusions that: 

(1)  Pronouns  change  form  according  to  person. 

(2)  Pronouns  change  form  according  to  number. 

(3)  Pronouns  sometimes  change  form  according  to 

gender. 

(4)  Pronouns  change  form  according  to  the  way  in 

which  they  are  used  in  the  sentence. 

Pronouns  are  said  to  be  in  one  of  the  three  cases, 
according  to  the  way  in  which  they  are  used. 

Pronouns,  then,  are  exactly  like  nouns  in  that 
they  have  person,  number,  gender,  ^nd  case. 

Pronouns  are  unlike  nouns  in  that  they  change 
their  forms  decidedly  in  order  to  show  person,  num- 
ber, gender,  and  case. 

In  order  to  learn  the  different  forms  of  the  pronoun 
easily,  you  should  learn  them  in  groups.  The  groups 
are  divided  into  the  group  of  first  person  pronouns, 
that  of  second  person  pronouns,  and  that  of  third 
person  pronouns.     Each  group  shows  all  the  forms  of 


THE  PERSONAL  PRONOUN 


61 


that  person  for  both  numbers  and  all  the  cases.  Such 
a  grouping  of  forms  is  called  a  declension. 

In  addition  to  expressing  the  masculine  gender 
by  means  of  he,  and  the  feminine  gender  by  means  of 
she,  the  personal  pronoun  can  also  stand  for  a  thing 
without  life  by  means  of  it.  It  is  said  to  be  of  the 
neuter  gender. 

/,  you,  he,  she,  it,  and  their  plurals  are  called 
the  personal  pronouns. 


48.  The  forms  of  the  personal  pronouns. 

First  Person 
Singular  Plural 


Nominative 

I 

we 

Possessive 

my,  mine 

our,  ours 

Objective 

me 

Second  Person 

us 

Nominative 

you 

you 

Possessive 

your,  yours 

your,  yours 

Objective 

you 

Third  Person 

[he 

you 

Nominative  - 

she 
it 
fhis 

they 

Possessive 

I  her,  hers 

[its 
'  him 

their,  theirs 

Objective 

<  her 
it 

them 

62 


THE  PRONOUN 


Learn  the  forms  thoroughly,  for  it  is  a  serious 
mistake  to  use  one  of  these  forms  in  the  wrong  place. 

You  learned  that  the  pronoun  is  said  to  be  in  a 
certain  case  according  to  the  way  in  which  it  is  used. 
The  pronouns  are  exactly  like  the  nouns  in  this  respect. 

subject 

predicate  noun  (it  is  called  predi- 
cate noun  even  though  it  is  a 
pronoun). 

appositive 
f  used  to  show  possession 
\  appositive 

direct  object 

indirect  object 

governed  by  preposition 

appositive 


Nominative  case 


Possessive  case 


Objective  case 


Exercise 

Select  all  the  personal  pronouns  in  these  sen- 
tences. Tell  how  they  are  used.  Name  the  case  of 
each. 

1.  I  know  you  too  well  to  blame  you. 

2.  He  is  the  president  of  the  class. 

3.  The  teacher  sent  him 'from  the  room. 

4.  The  falling  beam  struck  us. 

5.  She  is  a  strong-minded  girl. 

6.  Mother  scolded  her. 

7.  It  tires  me  to  swim. 

8.  We  threw  it  into  the  river. 

9.  You  are  too  generous. 

10.  I  gave  him  a  package  to  carry. 

11.  Marie  lent  her  a  raincoat. 


PRONOUN  IN  NOMINATIVE  63 

12.  I  showed  them  my  new  clothes. 

13.  I  bought  him  a  brand  new  hat. 

14.  I  would  say  nothing  in  reply. 

15.  They  expect  the  guests  at  seven. 

16.  He  divided  the  labor  evenly. 

17.  The  six  o'clock  rush  at  the  terminal  knocked  us 
down. 

18.  We  asked  if  we  might  go,  but  we  were  refused. 

19.  She  sewed  the  seam  beautifully. 

20.  Katie  was  in  the  burning  house,  but  she  was  saved 
by  a  brave  fireman.      She  later  sent  him  a  note  of  thanks. 

49.  Pronoun  with  is.  When  the  pronoun  is  used  as 
predicate  noun,  it  is  put  in  the  nominative  case.  One 
of  the  commonest  errors  made  by  young  people  results 
from  forgetting  this  fact.     Here  are  examples: 

1.  Who  is  there? 

Right:     It  is  /.     It  is  we.     It  is  she.     It  is  they. 

2.  Is  this  your  friend?     This  is  she.     This  is  he. 

3.  Which  are  your  friends?     These  are  they. 

4.  It  is  we  who  want  you,  Mother. 

5.  It  was  they  who  wrecked  the  train. 

Exercise 
Supply  the  proper  case  form  in  the  blanks: 

1.  Who  is  there?     It  is  [them,  they]. 

2.  This  is  [she,  her]. 

3.  Mother,  this  is  [me,  I]. 

4.  Was  it  [we,  us]  of  whom  you  were  speaking? 

5.  Which  is  your  cousin?     That  is  [her,  she]. 

6.  It  was  [him,  he]  who  blamed  [us,  we]. 


64  THE  PRONOUN 

7.  It  was  [them,  they]  who  reported  the  trouble. 

8.  This  is  [me,  I]  at  the  door. 

9.  Could  it  have  been  [her,  she]? 

10.  It  was  [them,  they]  for  whom  I  asked. 

11.  Was  it  [he,  him]  who  broke  this  glass? 

12.  Give  it  to  [us,  we]  girls. 

13.  If  you  were  [me,  I]  what  would  you  do? 

14.  Were  you  asking  for  Miss  Blake?     I  am  [she,  her], 

15.  You  were  asking  for  the  new  nurse.     This  is  [she, 
her]. 

50.  Pronoun  governed  by  a  preposition.  Like  the 
noun,  the  pronoun  can  be  governed  by  a  preposition 
and  be  the  principal  word  in  a  prepositional  phrase. 
Such  a  pronoun  is  in  the  objective  case. 

Exercise 

Select  the  pronouns  used  in  prepositional  phrases 
in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  He  has  never  asked  a  favor  of  me. 

2.  When  she  spoke  of  him,  I  remembered  the  story  I 
had  heard. 

3.  Before  I  left,  everything  had  been  arranged  for  her. 

4.  Miss  Black  came  to  us  afterward. 

5.  Every  one  of  them  is  strong  and  well. 

.   6.  Nothing  could  be  judged  from  it  except  that  I 
ought  not  to  go. 

7.  Never  mention  ''prize"  to  me  again! 

8.  Please  bring  my  camera  to  me. 

9.  "Life  is  a  beautiful  fairy  tale,'^  said  the  fairy,  "and 
every  one  takes  part  in  it." 

10.  Some  of  the  window-panes  were  made  of  yellow 
glass;  if  one  looked  through  them,  he  saw  a  world  of  sunshine. 


PRONOUN  GOVERNED  BY  PREPOSITION     65 

11.  The  lady's  little  daughter  stood  by  her. 

12.  The  candle  shone  upon  her  as  if  it  would  speak  to 
her. 

13.  From  the  branch  the  man  made  a  plaything,  and  his 
children  played  with  it. 

14.  Stand  near  us. 

15.  You  will  take  sides  against  me? 

16.  He  has  never  accepted  anything  from  us. 

17.  The  Lord  will  show  mercy  unto  them  that  fear  Him. 

18.  "Nothing  for  you,"  said  the  postman. 

19.  Draw  the  thread  through  slowly  and  make  loops 
of  it. 

Always  use  the  objective  case  of  the  personal 
pronoun  after  a  preposition.  Be  particularly  careful 
in  this  respect  when  one  preposition  governs  two 
pronouns.  Sometimes  people  remember  to  put  the 
first  of  two  such  pronouns  in  the  objective  case,  but 
are  not  so  attentive  to  the  second.     For  instance: 

Wrong:    This  book  is  for  you  and  I. 
Right:     This  book  is  for  you  and  me. 

Select  from  each  set  of  brackets  the  proper  forms 
of  the  pronouns  to  place  in  the  blanks : 

1.  These  were  given  to  [you  and  I,  you  and  me]. 

2.  He  always  works  against  [Mary  and  I,  Mary  and 
me]. 

3.  Will  you  trj^  to  work  for  [Mary  and  me,  Mary 
and  I]? 

4.  Would  you  be  willing  to  buy  tickets  for  [her  and 
me,  she  and  I]? 

5.  Yes,  Harold  came  in  with  [Father  and  I,  Father 
and  me]. 

s 


66  THE  PRONOUN 

6.  The  praise  was  given  to  [he  and  she,  him  and  her]. 

7.  Whom  will  you  vote  for  [Esther,  Edith,  or  me; 
Esther,  Edith,  or  I]? 

8.  She  sat  just  opposite  [Margaret  and  I,  Margaret 
and  me]. 

9.  Was  Walter  visiting  with  [you  and  he,  you  and  him]? 

10.  The  umpire  decided  against  [Jones  and  me,  Jones 
and  I]. 

11.  I  hope  no  quarrel  may  ever  arise  between  [you  and 
I,  you  and  me]. 

51.  The  pronoxin  as  subject.  Always  use  the  nom- 
inative form  of  the  personal  pronoun  as  the  subject. 
Many  people  make  mistal^es  like  the  following: 

Wrong:     Him  and  James  left  at  five  o'clock. 
Right:     He  and  James  left  at  five  o'clock. 


Exercise 

Correct  the  following  sentences: 

1.  The  other  boys  and  us  were  at  the  pool. 

2.  Mary  and  her  were  my  best  friends. 

3.  John  and  him  knew  all  the  facts. 

4.  You  and  her  are  to  blame. 

5.  You  and  me  could  do  that  in  no  time. 

6.  Us  boys  could  not  win  a  point. 

7.  Her  and  I  made  six  towels. 

8.  The  Smiths  and  us  have  always  been  good  friends. 

9.  Him  and  her  have  had  a  falling  out. 

10.  Them  and  I  have  never  got  back  a  cent  of  the 
money. 

11.  Walter  and  me  were  invited  to  the  party. 


AGREEMENT  WITH  ANTECEDENT  07 

52.  The  possessive  case.  The  possessive  case  of  the 
pronoun,  like  that  of  the  noun,  shows  possession. 
Here  are  some  examples  of  its  use:* 

(a)  This  is  my  picture. 
(6)  This  house  is  mine. 

(c)  The  money  is  yours. 

(d)  Your  tickets  are  on  the  table. 

(e)  The  advantages  of  the  situation  are  his. 
(/)  His  coat  hangs  on  the  rack. 

ig)  This  purse  is  hers. 

(h)  The  credit  is  theirs. 

(i)  Their  knowledge  of  the  city  helped  me. 

(j)  Her  gift  was  gladly  accepted. 

(k)  This  book  will  do.    Its  contents  please  me. 

The  possessive  case  of  the  personal  pronoun 
never  requires  an  apostrophe  before  the  s  of  the 
ending. 

53.  Agreement  of  pronoun  with  its  antecedent. 

The  man  did  his  best. 

In  this  sentence  the  personal  pronoun  his  refers 
to  man. 

The  lady  brought  her  child  home. 
In  this  sentence  the  personal  pronoun  her  refers 
to  lady. 

You  should  hang  up  your  hat  and  coat. 
In    this    sentence,    your,    the    personal    pronoun, 
refers  to  another  pronoun,  you. 

'  The  distinction  sometimes  made  between  the  possessive  case  used  as  a  pronoun 
mud  as  an  adjective  is  purposely  omitted. 


68  THE  PRONOUN 

Further  examination  will  show  you  that  in  each 
of  these  cases,  the  pronoun  not  only  refers  to  a  word 
that  goes  before  it,  but  that  it  bears  a  certain  relation- 
ship to  that  word.  Because  this  word  to  which  the 
pronoun  refers  goes  before  the  pronoun,  the  word  is 
called  the  antecedent  of  the  pronoun.  Antecedent 
means  ^'that  which  goes  before." 

The  antecedent  of  a  pronoun  is  the  word  for 
which  the  pronoun  stands.  The  antecedent  may  be 
either  a  noun  or  a  pronoun. 

The  pronoun  must  have  the  same  person,  number, 
and  gender  as  its  antecedent. 

Observe  that  in  the  following  sentences  the  pro- 
nouns agree  with  the  antecedents  in  person,  number, 
and  gender : 

1.  John  sent  his  regards  to  you. 

2.  No  one  likes  to  feel  that  he  is  being  neglected. 

3.  Mary  felt  that  she  should  have  been  consulted. 

4.  Everybody  does  as  he  pleases  here. 

5.  The  cousins  left  their  valuables  in  the  safe. 

6.  The  boy  knew  that  his  excuse  was  flimsy. 

The  rule  that  a  pronoun  must  agree  with  its 
antecedent  in  person,  number,  and  gender,  is  often 
broken  when  the  expressions  any  one,  no  one,  each  one, 
every  one,  somebody,  everybody  are  referred  to.  These 
words  are  all  singular.  A  common  error  consists  in 
using  a  plural  pronoun  to  refer  to  one  of  them.  Often 
the  mistake  of  using  a  plural  pronoun  to  refer  to  one 
of  these  words  leads  to  a  mistake  in  gender  as  well. 
For  example: 


AGREEMENT  WITH  ANTECEDENT  09 

Wrong:  If  anybody  left  their  coat,  they  can  get  it 
at  the  office. 

Both  their  and  they  are  plural  forms  used  to  refer 
to  the  singular  antecedent  anybody.  Plainly,  this 
sentence  should  read  either 

If  anybody  left  his  coat,  he  can  get  it  in  the  office, 

or 
If  anybody  left  her  coat,  she  can  get  it  in  the  office. 

You  will  decide  whether  to  use  the  masculine  or 
feminine  pronoun  after  this  fashion : 

If  the  company  to  which  the  sentence  given 
above  is  addressed  is  made  up  of  both  men  and  women, 
the  pronoun  used  to  refer  to  anybody  is  the  masculine. 

Right:  If  anybody  left  his  coat,  he  can  get  it  at 
the  office. 

If  the  company  addressed  is  made  up  entirely 
of  women,  the  pronoun  referring  to  anybody  is  feminine. 

Right:  If  anybody  left  her  coat,  she  can  get  it 
at  the  office. 

To  sum  up,  then,  the  masculine  form  of  the 
pronoun  is  used  to  refer  to  an  antecedent  that  may 
be  either  masculine  or  feminine.  The  masculine  form 
is  always  used  to  refer  to  a  masculine  antecedent; 
the  feminine  form  is  always  used  to  refer  to  a  feminine 
antecedent. 


70  TPIE   PRONOUN 

Exercise 

Select  from  each  set  of  brackets  the  proper  forms 
to  insert  in  the  blanks  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Every  soldier  loved  [his,  their]  leader  devotedly,  and 
obeyed  [him,  them]  without  question. 

2.  Every  girl  brought  [their,  her]  bathing  suit  to  camp. 

3.  Every  boy  in  this  school  must  do  [their,  his]  work 
each  day. 

4.  Every  day  brings  [its,  their]  own  duty,  [its,  their] 
own  pleasure. 

5.  Tell  each  girl  to  wTite  [her,  their]  name  in  the  upper 
corner. 

6.  No  one  knows  what  [their,  his,  her]  end  may  be. 

7.  Somebody  has  neglected  [his,  their]  duty. 

8.  No  one  has  ever  made  [his,  her,  their]  mark  without 
effort. 

9.  Each  girl  may  have  a  ticket  if  [she,  they]  will  promise 
to  take  care  of  it. 

10.  No  boy  was  permitted  to  enter  unless  [they,  he] 
showed  a  pass. 

11.  If  each  person  looks  out  for  [their,  his,  her]  own 
belongings,  there  will  be  no  trouble. 

Exercise 

Select  all  the  personal  pronouns  in  the  follow- 
ing selections.     Tell  how  each  is  used  in  the  sentence. 

(a)  A  Dormouse  was  sitting  between  the  March 
Hare  and  the  Hatter  as  they  were  having 
their  tea.  The  Dormouse  was  fast  asleep, 
and  they  used  it  as  a  cushion,  leaning  their 
elbows  on  it,  and  talking  over  its  head. 
**  Very  uncomfortable  for  the  Dormouse," 


USE  OF  PRONOUN  71 

thought  Alice,  "only,  as  it  is  asleep,  I 
suppose  it  doesn't  mind.'* 

(6)  So  Cinderella's  two  sisters  called  her  to  them 
and  said,  "Now,  comb  our  hair,  brush  our 
shoes,  and  tie  our  sashes  for  us,  for  we  are 
going  to  dance  at  the  King's  feast." 

(c)  There  was  once  a  young  man  in  the  army.    He 

behaved  bravely,  and  was  always  the  first 
to  face  the  bullets.  While  the  war  lasted, 
all  went  well  with  him,  but  when  peace  was 
made  he  received  his  discharge,  and  his 
captain  told  him  to  go  about  his  business. 
His  parents  were  dead;  he  had  no  home; 
so  he  asked  his  brothers  to  take  him  in  until 
war  should  begin  again,  but  they  had  hard 
hearts,  and  said  they  could  do  nothing  for 
him.  So  the  poor  fellow  shouldeied  his  gun 
and  went  forth. 

He  came  into  a  great  open  region,  where 
he  sat  down  and  thought  gloomily  of  his 
fate.  "I  have  no  money,"  thought  he; 
*'I  have  never  learned  any  trade  but  war; 
I  am  not  fit  for  anything." 

Just  then  he  heard  a  noise,  and,  looking 
up,  he  beheld  a  stranger  before  him. 

*'  I  know  what  you  want,"  said  the  stranger; 
"it  is  money.  You  shall  have  as  much  as 
you  want  if  you  are  not  afraid.  I  give 
nought  to  cowards." 

(d)  No  one  ever  knows  what  will  happen  to  him. 

(e)  Her  duty  is  with  her  mother. 


72  THE   PRONOUN 

Exercise 

(a)  From  a  selected  column  on  the  front  page 
of  this  morning's  newspaper,  pick  out  all  the  personal 
pronouns  and  tell  how  they  are  used  in  the  sentences. 

(6)  Write  a  paragraph  giving  your  opinion  on 
the  subject,  "What  Athletics  Do  for  Our  School," 
or  on  some  other  subject  particularly  interesting  to 
you.  Go  over  the  paragraph  to  see  what  work  the 
personal  pronoun  has  done  for  you. 

(c)  Select  the  personal  pronouns: 

*' Where  are  you  going,  young  fellow,  my  Lad, 

On  this  glittering  morn  of  May?'' 
''I'm  going  to  join  the  colors.  Dad; 

They're  looking  for  men,  they  say." 
*'But  you're  only  a  boy,  young  fellow,  my  Lad; 

You  aren't  obliged  to  go." 
"I'm  seventeen  and  a  quarter.  Dad, 

And  ever  so  strong,  you  know." 

From  "Young  Fellow,  My  Lad" in  "Rhymes  of  a  Red  Cross  Man,"  by  Robert  W. 
Service.     Permission  Barse  and  Hopkins. 

♦  (d)  Select  the  personal  pronouns.  (This  verse 
was  written  under  the  painting  of  a  magnificent  trout.) 

''This  noble  old  trout  from  his  hole  ventured  out 
Something  more  of  this  wide  world  to  see ; 
The  news  got  about,  and  the  boys  snaked  him  out, 
And  brought  him,  a  subject  for  me." 

54.  The  Compoimd  Personal  Pronoun.  The  com- 
pound personal  pronoun  is  formed  by  adding  self  to 
the  forms  of  the  personal  pronoun.      The  compound 


COMPOUND   PERSONAL  PRONOUN  73 

personal  pronouns  are:  my  self ^  yourself,  himself,  her- 
self, itself,  in  the  singular;  and  ourselves,  yourselves 
and  themselves  in  the  plural. 

A  compound  personal  pronoun  may  be  used  as  an 
appositive  for  emphasis.    Examples : 

Mary  herself  told  me. 

I  shall  attend  to  this  matter  myself. 

He  himself  telephoned. 

Do  not  use  the  compound  personal  pronoun  as 
the  subject  of  a  sentence: 

Wrong:  Yourself  and  your  wife  are  the  ones  who 
were  chosen. 

Right:  You  and  your  wife  are  the  ones  who  were 
chosen. 

A  compound  personal  pronoun  may  be  used  as 
direct  object  of  a  verb  or  may  be  governed  by  a  prepo- 
sition. These  uses  are  incorrect  unless  in  each  case 
the  pronoun  names  the  same  person  or  thing  as  the 
subject  of  the  sentence. 

Wrong:    James  and  myself  went  to  college. 
Right:    James  and  I  went  to  college. 

Wrong:  The  governor  summoned  Simmons  and 
myself. 

Right:  The  governor  summoned  Simmons  and 
me. 

Right:     I  blamed  myself. 

Right:    The  prisoner  convicted  himself. 


74  THE  PRONOUN 

^Exercise 

The  compound  personal  pronouns  in  the  following 
sentences  are  correctly  used.  Point  out  in  each  case 
whether  the  pronoun  is  used  as  an  appositive,  or  as  the 
object  of  a  verb,  or  whether  it  is  governed  by  a  prepo- 
sition. 

1.  We  shall  have  to  help  ourselves  out  of  this  difficulty. 

2.  No  one  but  the  conductor  himself  realized  the  danger. 

3.  They  have  placed  themselves  in  an  unfortunate 
position. 

4.  We  divided  ourselves  into  two  sections. 

5.  I  myself  saw  the  accident. 

6.  John  addressed  the  letter  to  himself. 

Exercise 

Correct  the  misuse  of  the  compound  personal 
pronouns  in  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  Ruth  and  myself  organized  the  Girl  Scouts. 

2.  Harry  went  to  the  theater  with  my  father  and 
myself. 

3.  The  messenger  handed  telegrams  to  both  Merritt 
and  myself. 

4.  The  Bennetts  and  ourselves  went  on  a  picnic. 

5.  Edward  and  myself  fell  into  the  trap. 

There  are  no  such  words  as  hisself  or  theirselves. 

Wrong:  John  took  the  message  hisself. 
Right:    John  took  the  message  himself. 

Wrong:  They  named  theirselves  the  Community  Club. 
Right:  They  named  themselves  the  Community  Club. 


THE   RELATIVE  PRONOUN  75 

55.  The  relative  pronoun. 

(a)  Mr.  Jones  is  the  man  who  built  our  house. 
Who  in  this  sentence  stands  for  the  noun  man. 
Who,  then,  is  a  pronoun. 

(6)  He  brought  me  a  plan  which  I  followed. 
Which  in  this  sentence  stands  for  the  noun  plan. 
Which,  then,  is  a  pronoun. 

(c)  This  house  is  the  house  that  Jack  built. 

That  stands  for  the  noun  house  in  this  sentence. 
That,  then,  is  a  pronoun. 

(d)  He  that  endureth  to  the  end  shall  be  saved. 
That  stands  for  he,  which  is  taking  the  place  of 

the  subject  noun  in  this  sentence.      That,  then,  is  a 
pronoun. 

Like  the  personal  pronouns,  the  pronouns  in  the 
sentences  above  stand  for  nouns.  For  instance,  in  (a) 
who  is  the  subject  of  huilt;  in  (d)  that  is  the  subject 
of  endureth.  Unlike  the  personal  pronouns,  they  go  a 
step  further,  and  perform  in  addition  to  what  you  have 
already  seen,  a  duty  which  no  other  pronoun  can  per- 
form. This  duty  is  that  of  connecting  clauses. 
Examine  these  sentences  closely.  You  find  that  each 
of  them  falls  readily  into  a  principal  and  a  subordinate 
clause.     For  instance: 

Principal  clause:     Mr.  Jones  is  the  man. 
Subordinate  clause:    Who  built  our  house. 

Who  stands  for  its  antecedent  man.  The  sub- 
ordinate clause  is  saying  something  about  man.     Who 


76  THE  PRONOUN 

connects  the  clauses  because  it  stands  for  the  very 
word  concerning  which  the  subordinate  clause  is 
aying  something.  The  relationship  between  two 
such  clauses  is  very  close.  Who  is  the  word  that 
shows  the  connection  between  the  tw^o  clauses. 

If  you  separate  sentences  (b),  (c),  and  (d)  into 
clauses,  you  will  come  to  the  conclusion  that  which  and 
that  are  also  pronouns  that  show  connection  between 
clauses.    Such  pronouns  as  these  are  called  relative. 

A  relative  pronoun  always  occurs  in  a  subordinate 
clause  and  connects  the  subordinate  clause  with  the 
principal  clause. 

56.  Agreement.  A  relative  pronoun  agrees  with  its 
antecedent  in  gender  and  number.  This  is  a  simple 
matter,  for  that  and  which  never  change  their  form, 
for  any  case  or  number;  and  who,  although  it  has 
three  forms  for  the  three  different  cases,  has  no 
inflection  for  number.      The  forms  of  who  are: 

Singular  and  Plural 

Nominative,  who 
Possessive,     whose 
Objective,       whom 

The  relative  pronouns  who  and  whom  refer  only 
to  people;  the  possessive  whose  refers  to  both  people 
and  things;  which  refers  only  to  things;  that  may  refer 
to  either  persons  or  things. 

Clauses  containing  relative  pronouns  are  said 
to  be  introduced  by  relative  pronouns  and  are  called 
relative  clauses. 


THE  RELATIVE  PRONOUN  77 

Exercise 

Select  the  relative  pronouns  in  the  following 
sentences.  Tell  the  clauses  connected,  and  name  the 
duty  that  the  relative  performs  in  the  sentence. 

1.  Charles  is  a  child  who  never  cries. 

2.  Mary  is  the  girl  who  took  my  picture. 

3.  Laziness  is  a  thief  who  is  never  caught. 

4.  Ichabod  Crane,  who  was  tall  and  lank,  looked  like 
^  scarecrow, 

5.  The  man  whose  hat  I  crushed  was  smgry. 

6.  You  may  invite  whom  you  wish. 

7.  The  ticket-seller,  whose  temper  had  been  tried  to 
its  utmost,  was  rude  to  his  patrons. 

8.  He  is  a  man  whom  we  all  respect, 

9.  His  daughter,  whom  he  loved  dearly,  was  taken 
from  him. 

10.  The  girl  whose  arm  was  broken  was  taken  to  the 
hospital. 

IL  Whom  the  Lord  loveth,  He  chasteneth. 

12.  The  girl  whom  I  recommended  to  you  proved  to  be 
unworthy. 

13.  This  man,  whom  I  know  well,  has  been  wrongly 
accused. 

14.  I  shall  send  you  to  any  one  whom  I  know  well. 

15.  Mr.  Smith  is  the  gentleman  from  whom  I  received 
the  letter. 

(Note. — la  sentences  like  6  and  11,  the  antecedent  of  the  relative  is  merely  unex- 
prossod.  What  the  sentence  really  gives  your  mind,  in  11,  is  "Those,  or  those  people, 
whom  the  Lord  loveth,  He  chasteneth.") 

Exercise 

From  the  forms  in  each  set  of  brackets  select 
the  proper  one  to  place  in  the  sentence. 


78  THE  PRONOUN 

1.  I  secured  a  man  [who,  whom]  I  could  depend 
upon. 

2.  There  was  some  attempt  at  applause  by  people 
[which,  who]  were  scattered  through  the  audience. 

3.  AUce  found  herself  lying  with  her  head  in  the 
lap  of  her  sister  [which,  who]  was  frantically  calling  to  a 
man  [which,  who]  was  plowing  in  a  field  some  little  distance 
away. 

4.  The  man  addressed  the  servant  [who,  which]  only 
bowed  and  smiled  in  reply. 

5.  They  wished  to  find  a  girl  [who,  whom]  they  could 
send. 

6.  This  is  the  soldier  to  [whom,  who]  the  general  gave 
a  medal  for  bravery. 

7.  At  the  end  of  the  passage  Roddy  met  a  man  [whom, 
who]  he  knew. 

8.  Sometimes  a  man  gathers  together  several  char- 
acters of  [which,  whom]  he  makes  a  single  novel. 

9.  She  works  for  those  [whom,  who]  are  in  need. 

10.  She  was  the  beautiful  lady  [who,  that]  lived  in  the 
big  house. 

11.  The  man  for  [who,  whom]  I  work  is  just. 

12.  I  employed  one  [whom,  who]  I  knew  well. 

Other  relative  pronouns  are  as  and   what.     Ex- 
amples : 

(a)  He  gave  the  prize  to  such  as  deserved  it. 

(b)  What  I  have  said  I  shall  maintain. 

57.  Compound  Relative  Pronouns.  The  compound 
relative  pronouns  are  formed  by  adding  ever  or  soever 
to  the  forms  of  the  relative.  They  are  whoever, 
whichever,  whatever,  whosoever,  etc. 


THE  INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUN  79 

Whosoever  is  inflected  thus : 

Nominative,  whosoever  (whoever) 

Possessive,    whosesoever 

Objective,      whomsoever  (whomever) 

Take  care  to  use  the  proper  case  of  whoever  or 
whosoever.  The  case  will  depend  on  the  work  that  the 
word  is  doing. 

Wrong:    I  shall  ask  whoever  I  please. 
Right:    1  shall  ask  whomever  I  please. 

Wrong:     She  spoke  to  whomever  was  passing. 
Right:    She  spoke  to  whoever  was  passing. 

58.  Interrogative  Pronouns 

Who  wants  me? 

Which  of  these  books  is  mine? 

What  did  you  ask  for? 

The  words  who^  which,  and  what  in  the  sentences 
given  above  are  used  to  ask  questions.  These  pro- 
nouns are  therefore  called  interrogative  pronouns. 

An  interrogative  pronoun  is  a  pronoun  used  in 
asking  questions. 

The  interrogative  pronouns  are  who,  which,  and 
what.    Who  is  inflected : 

Nominative,  who 
Possessive,    whose 
Objective,       whom 

Who  refers  to  persons;  which  refers  to  persons 
and  things;  what  refers  to  things. 


80  THE   PRONOUN 

Examples  of  the  use  of  these  pronouns  follow : 


1. 

Who  is  there? 

2. 

Whom  do  you  want? 

f 

3. 

Whose  fault  was  this? 

4. 

Which  of  you  will  volunteer? 

5. 

What  do  you  want? 

6. 

Whom  am  I  addressing? 

7. 

Which  of  you  hath  done  this? 

Care  must  be  taken  to  use  the  proper  case  of  the 
interrogative  pronoun  who.  You  have  often  been 
asked  over  the  telephone,  *^Who  am  I  talking  to?'' 
What  should  the  person  have  said? 

Fill  the  blanks  in  the  following  sentences  correctly : 

1.  did  you  want?     (whom,  who) 

2.  am  I  speaking  to,  please?     (who,  whom) 

3.  did  you  take  the  key  from?     (who,  whom) 

4. did  you  ask  to  help  us?     (who,  whom) 

59.  Other  Pronouns.  Each,  some,  any,  both,  many, 
this,  that  and  several  other  words  are  used  as  pro- 
nouns. In  the  examples  that  follow  you  will  observe 
that  each  of  these  words  does  the  work  of  a  noun. 

1.  Each  should  be  provided  with  a  day's  rations. 

2.  Some  like  candy;  some  do  not. 

3.  Both  pleaded  for  a  postponement  of  the  trial. 

4.  Any  of  these  questions  may  be  chosen. 

5.  Many  cried  aloud  in  their  anguish. 

6.  Several  turned  and  ran. 

7.  Few  of  us  realize  the  importance  of  details. 

8.  I  shall  buy  none  of  that  material,  but  shall  take  a 
yard  of  this. 


VI.   THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH— The  Adjective 

60.  What  an  adjective  is. 

(a)  Mary  is  a  cautious  girl. 
In  the  sentence  given  above,  cautious  tells  the  kind 
of  girl  Mary  is.  Cautious  adds  something  to  our  idea 
of  girl.  Cautious,  then,  is  more  closely  connected 
with  the  word  girl  than  with  any  other  word  in  the 
sentence.     What  part  of  speech  is  girlf 

(6)  We  rowed  across  the  quiet  pond. 
Quiet  adds  something  to  our  idea  of  pond.     Then 
quiet  is  more  closely  connected  with  the  word  pond 
than  with  any  other  word  in  the  sentence.     What  part 
of  speech  is  pond? 

(c)  This  man  is  an  orator. 

This  tells  which  man  is  an  orator.  This  is  more 
closely  connected  with  man  than  with  any  other  word 
in  the  sentence.     What  part  of  speech  is  man? 

(d)  Six  mice  ran  across  the  floor. 

Six  is  more  closely  connected  with  mice  than  with 
any  other  word  in  the  sentence.  What  part  of  speech 
is  mice? 

To  sum  up  your  conclusions  about  cautious, 
quiet  J  thiSf  and  six,  note  that: 

These  words  are  all  alike  in  that  they  are  closely 
connected  with  nouns.  They  are  all  aUke  in  that 
•  rsi) 


82  THE  ADJECTIVE 

each  changes  the  meaning  of  the  noun  with  which 
it  is  connected.  Cautious  changes  your  idea  of  Mary; 
quiet  adds  to  your  idea  of  pond;  this  tells  what 
particular  man  is  an  orator,  or  limits  the  predicate, 
is  an  orator  J  to  this  man;  six  shows  that  not  all  the 
mice  in  the  world  ran  across  the  floor — only  six  ran. 
There  is  a  whole  group  of  words  which  performs  this 
duty  of  changing  or  limiting  the  meaning  of  nouns 
and  pronouns,  apd  this  group  of  words  is  known  as 
another  part  of  speech.  The  name  given  to  this 
part  of  speech  is  adjective. 

An  adjective  is  a  word  that  changes  or  limits  the 
meaning  of  a  noun  or  pronoun. 

61.  A  word  or  group  of  words  which  changes  or  limits 
the  meaning  of  another  word  is  called  a  modifier. 

Exercise 

Point  out  the  words  in  the  following  sentences 
that  modify  nouns  or  pronouns : 

1.  The  bleak  day  made  me  shiver. 

2.  The  glittering  ring  fascinated  me. 

3.  She  wore  a  checked  shirtwaist. 

4.  Please  use  red  ink. 

5.  "David  Copperfield"  is  my  favorite  book. 

6.  Sunshiny  days  are  often  happy  ones. 

7.  Polish  the  brass  handle  on  the  front  door. 

8.  Careful  enunciation  is  one  of  the  first  steps  toward 
polished  speech. 

9.  A  big,  fuzzy  muff  lay  on  the  oak  table. 
10.  There  was  a  hot  fire  in  the  stove. 


ADJECTIVES  THAT  DO  NOT  DESCRIBE      83 

11.  Red-headed  people  are  said  to  hava  fiery  tempers 
and  warm  hearts. 

12.  An  industrious  servant  was  sweeping  the  wide 
walks. 

13.  Tom  bought  a  self-loading  pistol. 

62.  Adjectives  that  do  not  describe.^ 

The  adjectives  this  and  that  have  the  plurals  these 
and  those  respectively.  These  plurals  are  of  course 
used  to  modify  plural  nouns. 

There  is  a  group  of  adjectives  which  changes  the 
meaning  of  nouns  by  telling  how  many.  These  adjec- 
tives are  numbers  one^  two^  three,  and  so  on.  An 
example  of  the  use  of  this  sort  of  adjective  was  given 
in  the  sentence,  Six  mice  ran  across  the  floor. 

Somewhat  like  this  group  is  another  consisting 
of  adjectives  which  tell  the  order  or  numerical  rank 
of  the  noun  modified.  These  adjectives  are  first, 
second,  third,  fourth,  and  so  on.     Example: 

Take  your  arithmetic  lesson  in  the  second  hoar,  not  in 
the  first  hour. 

Another  group  of  adjectives  consists  of  each,  both, 
several,  this,  that,  many,  few,  any,  such,  what,  which, 
and  some  others.  You  learned  in  section  53  that 
such  words  are  sometimes  used  as  pronouns.  The  part 
of  speech  of  the  word  is  determined  by  the  work  that 
the  word  does  in  the  sentence.  When  these  words  do 
the  work  of  pronouns,  they  are  pronouns.  When  they 
do  the  work  of  adjectives,  they  are  adjectives. 

^Yarioua  spec\&\  names,  Buch  asi  demonstrative,  quantitative,  indefinite,  distributive, 
etc.,  are  sometimes  given  to  these  adjectives.  These  classifications  serve  no  purpose 
in  oral  or  written  composition. 


84  THE  ADJECTIVE 

Exercise 

Point  out  the  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences 
and  tell  the  word  each  modifies: 

1.  Some  people  have  already  arrived  for  our  party. 

2.  Will  those  girls  who  sold  tickets  please  turn  in  the 
money? 

3.  Many  soldiers  passed  through  the  town. 

4.  He  gave  alms  to  all  deserving  people. 

5.  No  reason  you  can  give  will  satisfy  me. 

6.  You  may  give  help  to  any  girl  who  asks  for  it. 

7.  Several  mischievous  boys  made  this  trouble. 

8.  Will  each  student  pay  his  dues  at  once? 

9.  A  note  of  excuse  will  be  required  of  every  girl. 

10.  Her  fears  caused  me  many  anxious  hours. 

11.  What  book  have  you? 

12.  Which  girl  do  you  mean? 

13.  Yonder  hills  were  the  inspiration  of  his  youth. 

14.  The    general   expects   each   soldier   to    obey   him 
instantly. 

15.  Some  people  lead  virtuous  lives. 

63.  The  articles.  Under  the  heading  of  adjectives 
come  the  words  the,  a,  and  an.  These  words  are 
called  articles.  The  is  the  definite  article,  simply 
because  it  points  out  more  definitely  the  thing  men- 
tioned than  a  or  an.  A  and  an  are  called  indefinite 
articles.  A  is  used  before  words  beginning  with  a 
consonant;  an  before  words  beginning  with  a  vowel. 
The  articles  differ  from  adjectives  in  general  in  the 
colorlessness  of  their  duty;  but  if  you  wish  to  realize 
how  much  the  articles  help  to  make  our  language  clear 
and  definite,  read  a  paragraph  from  any  magazine, 


THE   PREDICATE  ADJECTIVE  85 

omitting  all  the  articles.  You  will  then  see  that 
though  these  little  words  seem  to  be  useless,  they  are 
actually  doing  much  work. 

Articles  are  not  inflected,  but  a  and  an  are  used 
only  before  singular  nouns;  the  is  used  before  both 
singular  and  plural  nouns. 

Be  careful  to  use  the  definite  article  and  the 
indefinite  article  to  show  whether  nouns  or  adjectives 
are  to  be  taken  separately  or  together.     Examples: 

I  see  a  blue  and  green  card.     {One  card.) 

I  see  a  blue  and  a  green  card.     {Two  cards.) 

I  saw  the  president  and  manager  of  the  company.     {One 

man.) 

I  saw  the  president  and  the  manager  of  the  company. 

{Two  men.) 

64.  The  predicate  adjective. 

My  new  coat  is  blue. 

The  adjectives  in  this  sentence  are  new  and  blue, 
for  both  these  words  change  the  idea  of  coat.  New 
modifies  coat;  blue  modifies  coat  also.  Is  there  any 
difference  between  the  way  in  which  blue  modifies 
coat  and  the  way  in  which  new  modifies  coat?  Certainly 
as  far  as  the  duty  of  the  adjective  is  concerned,  new 
and  blue  hold  exactly  the  same  relationship  toward 
coat.  But  there  is  a  difference  in  the  location  of  the 
two  adjectives.  New  occupies  the  usual  position  of 
the  adjective,  but  blue  is  found  in  the  predicate  of  the 
sentence.  Moreover,  new  could  be  omitted  from  the 
sentence  without  much  sacrifice,  but  if  blue  were 
omitted,  the  sentence  would  lack  sense.     Blue,  then, 


86  THE  ADJECTIVE 

is  here  an  adjective  doing  actual  work  in  the  predicate 
and  yet  modifying  the  subject  of  the  sentence.  Blue 
is  here  said  to  be  a  predicate  adjective.  Remember 
that  position  alone  never  determines  a  grammatical 
function.  The  work  the  word  does  determines  its 
grammatical  classification. 

A  predicate  adjective  is  found  in  the  predicate 
and  modifies  the  subject. 

In  the  sentence,  He  stood  there,  tall  and  strong, 
two  adjectives  are  placed  at  the  end  for  emphasis 
only.  Note  that  the  predicate  adjective  has  to  serve 
as  a  completing  term,  a  duty  which  neither  tall  nor 
strong  performs. 

Exercise 
Select  the  predicate  adjectives  from  these  sentences. 

1.  In  debate  Johnson  was  persuasive  and  winning. 

2.  The  number  of  rooms  at  our  disposal  is  limited. 

3.  The  dessert  was  particularly  good. 

4.  We  were  both  hopeful. 

5.  The  knock  was  feeble,  but  we  all  heard  it. 

6.  Lorna  was  unconscious. 

7.  Old  Meehan  was  quiet,  bat  he  was  the  best-informed 
of  us  all. 

8.  The  warriors  were  grave  and  reverent. 

9.  The  way  was  steep  and  dangerous. 
10.  The  full  moon  was  bright  behind  me. 

65.  Comparison  of  adjectives. 

Adjectives  undergo  a  certain  change  of  form  to 
express  comparison.      For  instance,  if  you  spoke  of 


COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES  87 

two  pieces  of  string  of  unequal  lengths,  you  might  say, 
'This  piece  is  shorter  than  that;"  or,  'That  piece 
is  longer  than  this."  But  if  you  had  three  pieces 
of  string,  of  unequal  lengths,  you  might  say,  'This 
piece  is  the  shortest;^'  or,  'That  piece  is  the  longest^ 
There  are  then  three  steps  you  can  take  in  comparing 
adjectives.  You  can  say,  'This  string  is  short," 
meaning  that,  compared  to  strings  in  general,  this 
string  is  short;  you  can  say,  of  two  unequally  long 
strings,  "This  string  is  shorter  than  that;"  you  can 
say  of  three  or  more  unequally  long  strings,  "This 
string  is  shortest."  These  three  steps  are  called  the 
degrees  of  comparison.  Each  of  these  degrees  is  given 
a  name.  Short  is  the  positive  degree  of  the  adjective; 
shorter  is  the  comparative  degree;  shortest  is  the  super- 
lative degree. 

Compare  by  this  method  these  adjectives:  high^ 
deep,  wide,  tall,  thin,  dry. 

To  compare  adjectives,  add  er  to  the  positive 
to  form  the  comparative  degree ;  add  est  to  the  positive 
to  form  the  superlative  degree. 

Most  adjectives  of  one  syllable  are  compared 
in  this  way.  Adjectives  of  more  than  one  syllable 
are  compared  in  this  way  only  when  the  extra  syllables 
er  and  est  harmonize  well  with  the  entire  word.  For 
instance,  here  is  a  case  that  goes  well:  common,  com- 
moner, commonest.  On  the  other  hand,  dangerous, 
dangerouser,  dangerousest  is  plainly  impossible.  In 
such  cases  adjectives  are  compared  by  placing  more 
or  less  before  the  positive  form  to  make  the  compara- 


88 


THE   ADJECTIVE 


tive  degree,  and  most  or  least  before  the  positive  form 
to  make  the  superlative  degree.     For  example: 


Positive 
dangerous 


Comparative 

more 

or       dangerous 
less 


Superlative 

most 

or       dangerous 
least 


Compare  in  this  manner  each  of  the  following 
adjectives:  famous,  inexperienced,  fruitful,  wholesome, 
barren,  fertile. 


66.  Irregular  comparison.  Some  adjectives  are  com- 
pared irregularly;  that  is,  not  in  accordance  with 
either  of  the  methods  just  defined.  The  comparison 
of  these  adjectives  has  to  be  memorized. 


They  are: 
Positive 


near 


Comparative 
better 


worse 

elder 
older 

more 


Superlative 

best 
least 

worst 

eldest 
oldest 

most 


near 

next 

or 

or 

learer 

nearest 

COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES  89 

67.  Adjectives  that  are  not  compared.  Some  adjec- 
tives have  such  meanings  that  they  cannot  be  com- 
pared. For  instance,  this,  that,  which,  fourteen, 
universal,  unanimous,  are  not  compared  because  no 
comparative  or  superlative  degrees  are  possible. 

Exercise 

In  the  following  sentences  compare  the  adjectives 
which  can  be  compared : 

1.  There  is  business  of  high  importance  here. 

2.  Nine  of  the  men  were  badly  hurt. 

3.  Is  this  news  true? 

4.  On  the  wharf  were  a  scythe  and  three  spades. 

5.  The  whole  style  of  the  launch  was  different. 

6.  There  was  something  in  the  tone  of  this  note  which 
gave  me  great  uneasiness. 

7.  I  feared  that  some  serious  disaster  had  befallen  my 
friend. 

8.  The  prudent  thing  to  do  is  always  the  thing  Harry 
chooses. 

9.  A  sulky  boy  sat  in  the  outer  office  waiting  for  the 
principal. 

10.  The  servants  gave  their  returned  master  a  most 
cordial  welcome. 

11.  Poe  was  the  first  American  short-story  writer. 

12.  Near  the  western  extremity  are   some  miserable 
frame  buildings. 

13.  Such  explanations  were  interesting. 

14.  Legrand  had  once  been  wealthy. 

15.  In  the  first  place,  this  way  out  of  the  difficulty  is 
uncertain;   and  in  the  second  place,  it  is  not  dignified. 

16.  The  island  was  a  singular  one. 

17.  This  puzzle  is  the  queerest  one  that  I  ever  saw. 


90  THE  ADJECTIVE 

18.  Willie^s  good-conduct  badge  was  restored  to  his 
arm  at  once. 

19.  Any  pattern  will  do. 

20.  His  chief  interest  lies  in  the  draughting  of  plans  for 
airplanes. 

21.  The  riderless  pony  brought  the  news. 

22.  The  tired  company  could  go  no  further. 

23.  Another  man  joined  the  conference. 

24.  The  dismissed  servant  told  tales  of  his  former 
employer. 

68.  Which  degree  to  use.  Use  the  comparative 
degree  when  you  are  speaking  of  two  objects  or  per- 
sons. Use  the  superlative  degree  when  you  speak  of 
more  than  two  objects  or  persons;   as: 

(a)  He  is  the  taller  of  the  two. 

(6)  He  is  the  more  scholarly  of  the  two. 

(c)  He  is  the  less  tiresome  of  the  two. 

(d)  Helen  of  Troy  was  the  loveliest  of  all  women. 

(e)  This  is  the  most  tuneful  harp  I  ever  heard. 

Correct  the  following  sentences: 

1.  The  largest  is  the  prettiest  of  the  two  hats. 

2.  Of  the  two  paths,  this  one  is  the  steepest. 

3.  The  eldest  of  the  two  boys  has  been  hurt. 

4.  It  was  difficult  for  the  commander  to  decide  which 
was  the  bravest  of  the  two  soldiers. 

5.  When  you  come  to  the  two  doors,  open  the  nearest 
one,  and  call  the  oldest  of  the  two  children. 

6.  *'Tom  Sawyer"  and  "Huckleberry  Finn"  were  our 
birthday  gifts.  I  think  ''Huckleberry  Finn"  the  funniest 
of  the  two  books. 


THE  WORK  OF  THE  ADJECTIVE  91 

7.  Mary  is  the  prettiest  of  the  two  girls. 

8.  Each  of  the  two  boys  has  a  good  disposition,  but 
John's  is  really  the  best. 

Exercise 
Select  all  the  adjectives  in  these  sentences.     Tell 
what  work  they  do. 

1.  Clear  and  deep  his  voice  went  on. 

2.  The  familiar  lines  of  the  old  hymn  rang  in  his  head. 

3.  My  hands  were  numb  with  cold. 

4.  Few  people  recognized  the  bent  figure. 

5.  Mark  finished  the  few  remaining  stalks  and  put 
them  in  a  neat  row. 

6.  I  could  not  come  to  j'ou  with  empty  hands. 

7.  Lyons,  plain-spoken  and  honest,  was  the  first  one 
on  his  feet;   Smith,  a  violent,  uncontrolled  fellow,  followed. 

8.  With  a  jolly  laugh,  Sally  picked  up  the  corn-cutter. 

9.  Matthew  was  still  excited  over  his  recent  adventure. 

10.  The  returning  company  crossed  the  open,   high- 
fenced  fields. 

11.  Deb  had  made  a  mysterious  discovery  which  he 
related  with  much  secrecy. 

12.  Jane  listened  with  keen  interest. 

13.  You  made  a  favorable  impression  on  him  on  that  day. 

14.  Yale  is  a  sure  winner  in  to-day's  game. 

15.  We  took  the  third  row  to  do  together. 

16.  He  has  unquestioned  courage. 

17.  This  is  a  curious  coincidence. 

18.  Max  drew  a  deep  breath  of  relief. 

19.  Fleming's  calm,  sensible  words  took  an  immense 
weight  off  my  mind. 

20.  Arthur  could  give  his  suspicions  no  definite  form. 

Note. — Another  use  of  the  adjective  is  that  called  the  attributive  complement. 
This  use  presents  no  functional  difficulty  and  can  be  omitted.  Example:  They  painted 
the  house  red. 


VII.    THE  PARTS  OF   SPEECH— The  Adverb 

69.  What  an  adverb  is. 

John  ran  swiftly. 

How  did  John  run?  Swiftly.  Swiftly  modifies 
the  verb  ran,     [See  Section  61.] 

John  has  gone  somewhere. 

Where  has  John  gone?  Somewhere.  Somewhere 
modifies  the  verb  has  gone. 

John  came  early. 

When  did  John  come?  Early.  Early  modifies 
the  verb  came. 

Mother  is  too  easy  with  Letty. 

To  what  degree  is  mother  easy?  Too  tells  the 
degree  to  which  mother  is  easy.       Too  modifies  easy. 

Here  is  a  group  of  words  which  does  the  work 
of  telling  hoWj  when,  where,  or  to  what  degree  about 
the  word  modified.  From  the  sentences  above  you 
judge  that  words  which  do  this  kind  of  work  may 
modify  both  verbs  and  adjectives.  The  greater 
number  of  these  words,  however,  modify  verbs,  and 
consequently  they  have  a  name  which  suggests  their 
close  relationship  to  verbs.  The  name  is  adverb, 
which   means   close-to-the-verh.      This   closeness  is   of 

(92) 


THE  ADVERB  9-3 

course   the   closeness  of  relationship,   not   always   of 
actual  position. 

Thank  you,  John,  very  kindly. 

To  what  degree  of  kindly  was  John  thanked? 

Very  modifies  kindly.  Kindly  itself,  however,  is 
an  adverb.  You  conclude  then  that  an  adverb  may 
modify  another  adverb,  as  well  as  a  verb  or  an  adjective. 

An  adverb  is  a  word  which  modifies  a  verb, 
adjective,  or  another  adverb.  It  may  tell  how,  when, 
where,  to  what  degree,  etc. 

Adverbs  are  formed  in  many  cases  by  adding 
ly  to  adjectives.  Examples:  Clearly,  merrily,  gayly, 
loudly.  But  there  are  adverbs  which  do  not  have 
this  common  ending.  Examples:  ill,  often,  beyond, 
enough,  upward,  afterward,  down,  hard,  hence,  along, 
why,  how,  when,  and  so  on. 

Do  not  forget  that  certain  adjectives  end  in  ly, 
like  lovely,  mannerly,  and  others.  Always  look  care- 
fully to  see  what  work  the  word  is  doing. 

Exercise 

Select  the  adverb.  Tell  the  part  of  speech  of 
each  word  modified. 

1.  The  fire  burned  steadily. 

2.  He  turned  his  head  sharply. 

3.  Aston  answered  abruptly. 

4.  Aymer  felt  supremely  content. 

5.  She  considered  the  matter  gravely. 

6.  The  trouble  finally  blew  over. 


94  THE  ADVERB 

7.  Rennie  shook  her  head  disapprovingly. 

8.  The  students  were  uproariously  gay. 

9.  I  counted  the  money  most  carefully. 

10.  Ned  was  furiously  angry. 

11.  He  tried  honestly  to  do  his  work. 

12.  Is  he  here  already? 

13.  The  prisoner  reluctantly  admitted  his  guilt. 

14.  The  child  listened  attentively. 

15.  The  money  was  hopelessly  lost. 

16.  Jack  was  not  fair  because  he  was  too  angry. 

17.  The  boy  related  his  triumph  gleefully. 

18.  Ed  was  strictly  truthful. 

19.  Luckily  it  was  a  light  whip,  but  it  cut  sharply. 

20.  He  walked  slowly  down  the  grass  path. 

70.  Idiomatic  adverbs.  There  is  a  group  of  adverbs 
which  do  not  belong  to  any  of  the  time-place-manner- 
degree  divisions.  Some  of  them  are:  perhaps,  which 
suggests  possibility;  surely  and  certainly ,  which  may 
imply  certainty  or  may  merely  be  polite  assenting 
words;  therefore,  which  is  often  thrown  in  to  gather 
the  reader's  thoughts  up  into  definite  form  before 
he  goes  any  further;  indeed,  which  is  another  word 
of  assent  or  emphasis;  not,  which  is  a  negative;  yes 
and  no,  which  are  merely  response-words. 

Sentences  containing  these  adverbs  follow : 

1.  Perhaps  I  shall  come,  but  don't  wait  for  me. 

2.  His  performance  is  surely  a  wonderful  feat. 

3.  I  will  surely  be  there. 

4.  Certainly,  I  shall  help  you  with  pleasure. 

5.  This  audience  is  certainly  the  smallest  one  I  ever  saw\ 

6.  You  can  see,  therefore,  that  I  was  in  a  dangerous 
position. 


USING  THE  ADVERB  95 

7.  Yes,  indeed,  I  shall  invite  you  all. 

8.  It  is  not  my  affair. 

71.  Adverbial  use  of  the  notm. 

We  walked  three  miles. ^ 

Miles  in  this  sentence  tells  how  far  we  walked. 
Mile  is  a  word  you  have  met  before  as  a  noun.  Here 
it  is  doing  the  work  of  an  adverb;  hence  it  is  here  an 
adverb.  It  is  called  the  adverbial  noun.  It  modifies 
the  verb  just  as  any  adverb  does,  but  as  a  noun,  it 
may  itself  be  modified  by  an  adjective. 

72.  Adjectives  incorrectly  used  for  adverbs. 

Adjectives  and  adverbs  do  different  work.  Do 
not  use  an  adjective  where  you  should  use  an  adverb. 

Wrong:     This  sure  is  a  difficult  problem. 
Right:     This  surely  is  a  difficult  problem. 

Wrong:     The  minister  spoke  slow  and  emphatic. 
Right:     The  minister  spoke  slowly  and  emphatic- 
aUy. 

Exercise 

Point  out  the  mistakes  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  I  come  to  see  you  real  often,  don't  I? 

2.  Why,  I'm  getting  along  pretty  good,  thank  you. 

3.  Cut  the  fudge  quick  and  it  will  be  smooth. 

4.  Don't  go  so  slow  about  your  work. 

5.  Did  you  do  your  problems  accurate? 

*The  noun  used  in  this  manner  should  always  be  plural  if  the  adjective  preceding 
it  is  plural.  Say  I  caught  a  fish  that  weighed  two  pounds,  not  I  caught  a  fish  that  weighed 
two  pound,    A  dififerent  way  of  expressing  the  idea  is  this:  I  caught  a  two'pound  JUh, 


96  THE  ADVERB 

6.  When  John  gets  at  it,  he  works  good. 

7.  Leonard  always  does  his  tasks  thorough. 

8.  He  went  as  quick  as  he  could. 

9.  The  whippoorwill  cried  dismal  in  the  twilight. 

10.  The  boy  drew  himself  lazy  out  of  the  pool. 

11.  I  pray  as  earnest  as  I  can. 

12.  Sally  looked  about  her  wild. 

13.  ''Will  you  come  to  the  meeting,  Tom?'' 
''Sure,  I'll  come!"  answered  Tom. 

14.  They  acted  unladylike  in  the  lunch  room. 

Exercise 

Explain  how  to  tell  the  difference  between  an 
adjective  and  an  adverb. 

In  the  following  sentences,  whicji  words  are 
adjectives,  and  which  are  adverbs?  Tell  the  part 
of  speech  of  the  word  modified. 

1.  The  young  man  sat  on  the  high  stool,  silent  and 
embarrassed. 

2.  The  scene  was  lovely. 

3.  The  street  was  very  narrow^,  very  long,  and  very 
gloomy. 

4.  The  child  was  extremely  sensitive. 

5.  The  man  was  not  merely  lonely;  he  was  afraid. 

6.  The  vision  had  not  yet  faded  away. 

7.  Temple  did  not  appear  often. 

8.  Strangeways  never  came  aboard. 

9.  He  sent  the  letter  too  soon. 

10.  He  was  not  one  of  those  people  that  talk  too  much. 

11.  It  was  necessary  that  the  lawyer  accompany  his 
client. 

12.  The  quiet  persistence  of  a  London  rain  amazes 
every  American. 


ADVERB   AND   ADJECTIVE  97 

13.  I  never  saw  you  before. 

14.  The  men  were  keenly  aware  of  the  mental  com- 
ments of  the  servants. 

15.  Burgess  still  had  business  with  me. 

16.  Then  sounded  a  quiet  knock. 

17.  Long  and  careful  training  came  to  Pearson's  aid. 
IS.  The  boy's  expression  was  a  slightly  puzzled  one. 

19.  Tembarom  was  now  entirely  alone. 

20.  Mr.  Leonard  left  by  a  very  early  train. 

21.  I  have  driven  miles  to  overtake  you. 

22.  They  were  all  going  somewhere  in  a  big  hurry. 

23.  Albert  stood  still  and  waited  for  the  long  minute 
to  end. 

24.  He  shook  hands  with  them  furiously  and  welcomed 
them  as  if  he  had  not  seen  an  American  in  years. 

25.  The  footman  stared  with  calm  features,  but  curi- 
ously interested  eyes. 

26.  The  room  had  deep  windows  which  looked  out  on 
lovely  gardens. 

27.  John  walked  up  and  down  excitedly. 

28.  He  laughed  the  short,  confident  laugh  again. 

29.  The  man  was  enormously  rich.  i   ^ 

30.  Everett  walked  confidently  into  the  room. 

31.  Mr.  Tarly  rarely  spoke,  but  when  he  did,  he  said 
something. 

32.  The  paper  was  brought  punctually  every  morning 
at  seven  o'clock. 

33.  The  thing  happened  so  unexpectedly  that  we  were 
almost  stunned  by  the  shock. 

34.  How  are  you  to-day,  Mr.  Doolittle? 

35.  I  am  fairly  well,  thank  you. 

73.     Comparison  of  adverbs.    Adverbs  and  adjectives 
are  compared  in  the  same  way. 


98  THE  ADVERB 

There  are  adverbs  whose  meaning  does  not  permit 
them  to  be  compared;  for  instance,  actually,  really, 
presently,  immediately,  yet,  once. 

Exercise 

Compare : 

gracefully  angrily  keenly  wearily 

painfully  poorly  slowly  wildly 

Exercise 

Select  the  adverbs  and  tell  their  degrees. 

1.  My  dear  boy,  things  never  run  smoothly  and  easily 
at  first. 

2.  The  boy  is  mine  now,  and  I  shall  do  my  duty  by 
him  most  willingly. 

3.  He  had  never  spoken  more  truthfully. 

4.  You  have  done  less  badly  with  your  task  than  I. 

5.  Lily  met  me  more  shyly  than  her  brother. 

6.  If  you  do  your  work  satisfactorily,  I  shall  not 
complain. 

7.  You  speak  more  charitably  than  I. 

Exercise 

I.  From  a  page  of  the  book  you  are  reading  in 
your  English  class,  select  ten  sentences  containing 
adverbs.  Make  a  list  of  the  adverbs.  Write  sentences 
of  your   own,  containing  all  of  these  adverbs. 

II.  Select  the  adverbs  from  the  following  para- 
graphs. Tell  the  part  of  speech  of  the  words  they 
modify. 

(a)  The  sun  was  coming  up  when  Thundermouth 
suddenly  turned  his  horse  and  came  riding 


USING   THE  ADVERB  99 

slowly  back.  We  soon  met  him  and  learned 
that  he  had  lost  the  trail.  He  had  not 
watched  it  carefully,  for  he  believed  it  led 
directly  to  Bear  River,  and  now  he  had 
passed  the  turn.  We  all  retraced  our  steps. 
Finally  we  found  that  the  trail  crossed  the 
creek  and  continued  down  the  south  side 
of  it.  Thundermouth  took  the  lead  again, 
and  we  went  forward. 
(6)  "When  Sunday  morning  came,"  said  Mr. 
Lincoln,  "I  did  not  know  what  to  do.  I 
told  Mr.  Washbourne  I  had  nowhere  to  go, 
and  he  proposed  to  take  me  down  to  the 
Five  Points  Sunday  School.  I  was  very 
much  interested  in  w^hat  I  saw.  Presently 
Mr.  Pease  came  up  and  spoke  to  Mr.  Wash- 
bourne,  who  introduced  him  to  me.  Then 
Mr.  Washbourne,  at  Mr.  Pease's  request, 
spoke;  then  I  was  asked  to  speak.  I  told 
them  I  had  always  tried  to  do  the  very  best 
I  could  even  when  I  was  so  poor  that  my 
toes  stuck  out  from  my  shoes  in  winter. 
I  said  that  if  they  would  do  the  best  they 
could  they  would  always  get  along  somehow. 
I  spoke  very  simply,  and  thought  I  had  said 
nothing,  but  after  I  had  finished  some  of 
the  teachers  came  up  and  shook  hands  with 
me  and  said  that  that  was  just  what  those 
poor  children  needed  so  badly.  Next 
morning  I  saw  that  my  simple  remarks  had 
been  noticed  by  the  papers.  The  thing  I 
remember  best,  though,  is  the  songs  those 
children  sang.  They  sang  earnestly  and 
sweetly.    I  shall  never  forget  it." 


Vin.     THE  PHRASE 

74.  What  a  phrase  is.  In  chapter  four  you  learned 
that  the  preposition  and  the  noun  or  pronoun  which 
it  governs,  together  make  up  the  prepositional  phrase. 
You  thought,  in  studying  chapter  four,  only  of  the 
two  parts  of  the  prepositional  phrase,  and  not  of 
the  phrase  as  a  whole.  You  need,  however,  to  consider 
not  only  the  relationship  of  the  preposition  to  the 
noun  or  pronoun  which  it  governs,  but  also  the  relation- 
ship of  the  phrase  as  a  whole  to  the  sentence. 

A  group  of  related  words,  without  a  subject  and 
predicate,  doing  the  work 'of  a  single  part  of  speech, 
is  called  a  phrase. 

75.  The  adverbial  phrase.  When  you  are  trying  to 
decide  the  relationship  which  parts  of  the  sentence 
bear  to  each  other,  you  ask,  ''What  work  does  this 
part  of  the  sentence  do?^'  To  discover  what  work  a 
phrase  can  do  in  a  sentence,  study  this  one: 

The  car  crashed  over  the  embankment. 

The  prepositional  phrase  over  the  embankment 
is  attached,  as  a  whole,  to  the  word  crashed,  for  the 
phrase  makes  fuller  the  idea  expressed  by  the  word 
crashed.  Since  the  phrase  changes  the  idea  of  the 
word  crashed,  it  is  said  to  modify  the  word  crashed. 

Crashed  is  a  verb. 

Words  that  modify  verbs  are  adverbs. 

(100) 


ADVERBIAL  AND   ADJECTIVE   PK1JLASE6    10 J: 

The  phrase  over  the  embankment  is  here  doing 
the  work  of  an  adverb.  Therefore  the  phrase  over 
the  embankment  is  in  this  sentence  an  adverb,  or, 
if  you  prefer,  an  adverbial  phrase. 

Exercise 

Select  the  adverbial  phrases  from  the  following 
sentences.  Remember  that  an  adverbial  phrase,  like 
the  adverb,  may  modify  an  adjective. 

1.  Did  the  poet  impress  you  with  his  humor? 

2.  I  rushed  at  once  to  the  spot. 

3.  Never  in  my  life  did  I  hear  such  nonsense. 

4.  Please  leave  the  book  on  my  desk. 

5.  The  play  is  given  in  the  Adelphi  theater. 

6.  The  flowers  were  put  into  a  slender  vase. 

7.  Can  you  be  here  at  eight  o'clock? 

8.  To  what  extent  was  the  book  damaged? 

9.  For  what  crime  was  he  arrested? 

10.  From  my  window  I  can  see  the  laborers  as  they 
come  from  work. 

11.  Fill  the  bottles  with  ink. 

12.  Will  you  do  this  for  me? 

13.  Such  things  never  happen  in  the  South. 

14.  Throughout  the  trial,  the  prisoner  showed  wonder- 
ful self-control. 

15.  The  whistle  could  be  heard  for  miles. 

16.  She  is  entirely  dependent  upon  her  brother. 

17.  What  would  be  done  in  case  of  fire? 

18.  Will  you  throw  my  coat  around  my  shoulders? 

19.  Meet  me  at  the  Union  Station  at  seven  o'clock. 

20.  I  heard  about  your  misfortune  with  sincere  regret. 

76.     The  adjective  phrase.     The  phrase  can  do  other 


102  THE  PHRASE 

work  than  that  of  the  adverb,   as  you  will  see  by 
examining  this  sentence: 

Ours  is  the  house  with  the  slate  roof. 

The  phrase  with  the  slate  roof  adds  to,  or  changes 
the  idea  of  the  word  house.  The  phrase  with  the  slate 
roof,  then,  modifies  the  word  house. 

House  is  a  noun. 

A  word  which  modifies  a  noun  is  an  adjective. 
The  phrase  with  a  slate  roof  is  here  doing  the  work 
of  an  adjective.  Therefore  the  phrase  with  a  slate 
roof  is  an  adjective  phrase. 

Exercise 

Select  the  adjective  phrases.  Tell  which  noun  is 
modified. 

1.  The  justice  of  the  charge  appealed  to  him. 

2.  This  was  the  work  of  her  relatives,   not  of  her 
friends. 

3.  The  recollection  of  her  long  absence  made  her  turn 
home. 

4.  We  had  now  reached  the  summit  of  the  loftiest  crag. 

5.  The  events  of  the  day  were  very  exciting. 

6.  Her  past  behavior  was  a  source  of  vexation. 

7.  Elizabeth's  father  never  restrained  the  gayety  of 
his  household. 

8.  The  imprudence  of  Mrs.  Brown's  children  was  the 
subject  of  our  conversation. 

9.  Anxiety  on  Mary's  behalf  was  natural. 

10.  The  development  of  Richard's  character  was  the 
care  of  the  minister. 

11.  The  first  week  of  their  return  was  soon  gone. 


ADJECTIVE  AND  ADVERBIAL  PHRASES    103 

12.  Where  is  the  list  of  articles  that  you  want? 

13.  A  visit  to  Brighton  meant  every  possibility  of 
earthly  happiness. 

14.  She  was  the  object  of  admiring  glances  wherever 
she  went. 

15.  She  saw  all  the  glories  of  the  camp. 

16.  The  day  of  departure  arrived. 

17.  The  owner  of  the  house  will  be  here  to-day. 

18.  The  end  of  the  term  is  not  far  off. 

19.  To  give  a  description  of  Derbyshire  is  not  the  object 
of  this  work. 

20.  This  is  the  scene  of  the  play. 

21.  The  heat  of  the  sun  oppressed  hun. 

Make  up  ten  sentences  employing  adjectives  or 
adjective  phrases,  or  both.  Use  as  material  what  you 
see  as  you  look  from  a  window  of  your  home  or  of 
your  school. 

Exercise 

1.  Explain  how  to  tell  the  difference  between  an 
adjective  phrase  and  an  adverbial  phrase. 

2.  Which  phrases  are  adjective  phrases,  and  which 
are  adverbial  phrases  in  the  following  sentences? 
Tell  the  work  that  each  phrase  does;  that  is,  what 
word  it  modifies. 

1.  The  waves  beat  heavily  against  the  pier. 

2.  With  keen  eyes  he  watched  the  horses  as  they  trotted 
down  the  hill. 

3.  There  was  a  wide  strip  of  turf  on  each  side  of  the 
road. 

4.  It  was  a  lonely  stretch  of  marsh  land. 


104  THE   PHRASE 

5.  The  faint,  sharp  click  of  hoofs  swept  up  the  road 
to  the  boy. 

6.  The  lonely  figure  was  visible  to  the  travelers. 

7.  The  owner  of  the  mill  stood  with  one  hand  on  the 
boy's  shoulder. 

8.  The  elderly  gentleman  cast  a  glance  of  inquiry  from 
the  boy  to  his  companion. 

9.  The  fields  were  green  with  grass. 

10.  He  was  one  of  the  best  motorists  in  England. 

11.  They  came  to  a  standstill  before  the  door  of  the 
grand  mansion. 

12.  They  pointed  out  the  advantages  of  a  country  life. 

13.  Mr.  Mass  was  a  stout  man  of  hasty  temper. 

14.  Mr.  Neville  spent  most  of  his  time  in  London. 

15.  As  they  clattered  through  the  narrow  streets  of  the 
country  town  in  the  Ught  of  the  July  evening,  Chris  sat  up 
and  rubbed  his  eyes. 

16.  Every  one  was  kind  to  the  boy. 

3.  Write  five  sentences  containing  prepositional 
phrases.  Tell  what  part  of  speech  each  phrase  mod- 
ifies and  whether  it  is  an  adjective  or  an  adverbial 
phrase. 


IX.     THE  CLAUSE 

You  learned  in  section  10  that  a  division  of  a  sen- 
tence containing  a  subject  and  predicate  is  a  clause. 
You  will  recall  that  clauses  are  ranked  as  principal 
or  subordinate  according  to  the  work  they  perform. 
Subordinate  clauses  can  be  classified  still  further  in 
accordance  with  the  definite  duty  that  they  are  doing 
in  the  sentence. 

77.  The  adverbial  clause.     In  the  sentence, 

Put  your  wraps  where  they  belong, 

the  clause  where  they  belong  modifies  the  verb  jmt 
This  subordinate  clause,  then,  is  doing  the  work  of  an 
adverb.  An  adverbial  clause  is  always  introduced  by 
a  word  which  shows  the  subordinate  position  of  the 
clause  in  the  sentence. 

A  clause  that  does  the  work  of  an  adverb  is  an 
adverbial  clause. 

Exercise 

From  the  following  sentences  select  the  adverbial 
clauses.     Tell  what  they  modify. 

1.  I  shall  wait  until  George  comes. 

2.  I  will  try  not  to  move  when  the  flash-light  is  taken. 

3.  When  Caesar  cried  I  wept. 

4.  He  longed  to  go  where  there  is  opportunity  for  all 
men. 

(105) 


106  THE  CLAUSE 

5.  We  watched  the  patients  while  the  nurses  rested. 

6.  He  went  whence  he  had  come. 

7.  Did  the  detective  come  before  you  left  home? 

8.  Shall  we  play  chess  after  we  have  had  dinner? 

9.  I  have  never  spoken  about  it  since  she  asked  me 
not  to. 

10.  I  shall  join  you  as  soon  as  I  can. 

11.  I  shall  never  do  that  again  as  long  as  I  live. 

12.  Make  hay  while  the  sun  shines. 

13.  When  I  arrived  at  the  Terminal,  it  was  just  noon. 

14.  While  I  ate  my  luncheon  I  thought  of  the  afternoon 
plans. 

15.  Do  not  come  unless  I  send  for  you. 

16.  I  shall  not  care  if  I  never  come  back. 

17.  He  does  as  he  pleases. 

18.  Since  the  proof  is  here,  I  must  believe. 

78.  The  adjective  clause. 

Boys  who  pass  the  examinations  are  promoted. 

You  have  learned  to  call  the  group  of  words 
who  pass  the  examinations  sl  clause.  This  clause 
changes  your  idea  of  hoys  by  adding  to  that  idea  the 
fact  that  only  the  boys  who  pass  the  examinations 
are  promoted. 

The  clause  who  pass  the  examinations  modifies 
boys. 

Boys  is  a  noun.  The  word  which  modifies  a 
noun  is  called  an  adjective.  The  clause  is  here  doing 
the  work  of  an  adjective. 

A  clause  that  does  the  work  of  an  adjective  is  an 
adjective  clause. 


THE  ADJECTIVE  CLAUSE  107 

Note  that  adjective  clauses  are  subordinate  and  are 
usually  introduced  by  the  relative  pronoun.  This  pro- 
noun refers  to  its  antecedent  in  the  principal  clause,  and 
accompUshes  the  work  of  connecting  the  adjective  clause 
with  the  word  that  it  modifies  in  the  principal  clause. 
Adjective  clauses  are  sometimes  called  relative  clauses. 

Note. — The  words  where  and  when  frequently  introduce  adjective  clauses;  as, 
the  place  where  I  was  born,  the  hour  when  he  promised  to  come.  In  such  cases  where 
is  equivalent  to  in  which  and,  when  to  at  which. 

Exercises 

Select  from  the  following  sentences  the  adjective 
clauses.     In  each  case  tell  what  noun  is  modified. 

.  1.  The  housekeeper,  who  was  a  respectable,  elderly- 
looking  woman,  showed  them  about. 

2.  This  scholarship  was  the  reward  which  she  expected, 

3.  I,  who  am  your  general,  command  you. 

4.  I  have  .lost  the  book  which  you  left  for  me. 

5.  The  list  which  you  want  will  be  here  to-morrow. 

6.  He  who  laughs  last  laughs  best. 

7.  The  student  who  was  suspended  yesterday  was  an 
old  offender. 

8.  Lightning  struck  the  tree  under  which  we  were 
standing. 

9.  I  was  unable  to  reach  the  place  where  you  promised 
to  meet  me. 

10.  She  had  never  seen  a  place  for  which  natural 
Ijeauty  had  done  ftiore. 

11.  There  are  very  few  people  of  whom  so  much  can 
be  said. 

12.  The  time  has  come  when  every  man  must  help. 

13.  Caesar,  who  was  a  great  Roman  emperor,  wrote  an 
account  of  his  conquests. 


108  THE  CLAUSE 

Tell  whether  the  word,  phrase,  and  clause  modifiers 
in  the  following  sentences  are  doing  the  work  of  adverbs 
or  of  adjectives : 

1.  A  look  of  impatient  despair  spread  over  Rita's  face. 

2.  He  had  found  a  shelter  for  his  child. 

3.  I  found  the  book  where  I  had  left  it. 

4.  They  lingered  in  Europe  for  weeks  after  the  war 
broke  out. 

5.  His  method  of  questioning  was  very  direct. 

6.  Ramona  was  always  ready  with  a  smile  when  he 
spoke  to  her. 

7.  Martin  was  far  too  much  in  sympathy  with  the 
criminal. 

8.  There  was  no  apparent  change  in  the  sick  man's 
condition. 

9.  No  one  suspected  the  depth  of  little  Ned's  affection 
for  the  puppy  until,  one  day,  the  street  car  ran  over  the 
unlucky  dog. 

10.  Philip  had  too  many  cares  on  his  mind. 

11.  The  time  when  you  could  change  your  mind  has 
passed. 

79.  The  noun  clause. 

That  he  overheard  me  is  unfortunate. 

The  clause  that  he  overheard  me  is  here  acting  as 
the  subject  of  is.  The  clause  is  doing  the  work  of  a 
noun. 

A  clause  that  does  the  work  of  a  noun  is  a  noun 
clause. 

Noun  clauses,  are,  of  course,  subordinate. 


THE  NOUN  CLAUSE  109 

Other  examples  of  the  noun  clause: 

The  fact  is  that  he  can  not  afford  a  car  (predicate 
nominative) . 

I  knew  that  the  man  was  unjustly  accused  (object 
of  verb). 

I  had  no  reason  for  refusing  the  position  except 
that  it  required  me  to  leave  home  (governed  by  a  prepo- 
sition). 

I  learned  the  lesson  that  I  could  not  trifle  with  a 
loaded  gun  (used  in  apposition). 

Exercise 

Select  the  noun  clause  from  each  of  the  following 
sentences.    Tell  how  each  is  used. 

1.  The  report  that  Ned  had  been  injured  was  untrue. 

2.  I  did  not  know  that  I  had  fallen  until  I  regained 
consciousness. 

3.  I  believe  that  the  man  is  sincere. 

4.  I  saw  that  the  runner's  endurance  could  not  last. 

5.  I  had  no  idea  of  where  the  passage  would  lead  me. 

6.  Tell  me  what  you  think  about  this. 

7.  I  have  no  remembrance  of  where  we  went  or  what 
we  did. 

8.  I  can  not  forget  that  in  my  need  you  stood  beside 
me. 

9.  You  must  learn  to  distinguish  between  what  is 
right  and  what  is  wrong. 

10.  That  the  book  is  entertaining  no  one  could  deny. 

11.  When  he  will  arrive  remains  to  be  seen. 

12.  The  agent  said  nothing  about  the  book  except  that 
it  was  entertaining. 


no  THE   CLAUSE 

Exercise 

Tell  whether  the  clauses  in  the  following  sentences 
are  doing  the  work  of  nouns,  adjectives,  or  adverbs: 

1.  I  found  that  I  had  made  a  bad  mistake. 

2.  After  I  had  inquired  the  way,  I  remembered  that 
father  had  given  me  written  directions. 

3.  Often  poor  Ceres  encountered  fauns,  who  looked 
like  sunburnt  country  people,  except  that  they  had  hairy 
ears. 

4.  There  was  to  be  no  talking  while  the  classes  passed. 

5.  Although  every  precaution  for  our  safety  was  taken, 
the  robbers  overtook  us  and  plundered  our  baggage. 

6.  The  young  man  said  that  his  heart  would  not  fail 
him,  and  that  he  would  bring  back  the  Golden  Fleece. 

7.  When  the  count  withdrew  from  the  king's  presence, 
an  officer  followed  him  from  the  room. 

8.  The  little  girl  listened  attentively  to  every  word 
that  was  said. 

9.  We  had  a  glimpse  of  Mother  Ceres,  half  hidden 
amid  the  waving  grain,  while  the  four  black  steeds  were 
whirling  along  the  chariot  in  which  her  loved  daughter  was 
borne  away. 

10.  I  shall  be  very  lonely  while  you  are  away. 

11.  The  children  sat  down  on  the  sand,  where  the  surf 
broke  over  them,  and  busied  themselves  making  a  necklace, 
which  they  hung  about  Marion's  neck. 

12.  What  they  say  does  not  matter. 

13.  It  is  true  that  I  sent  for  the  ambulance. 

14.  Unless  I  am  mistaken,  this  plan  was  yours. 

15.  He  had  to  cross  a  field  where  daffodils  were  thick. 

16.  You  must  have  known  that  I  would  come  to  the 
house  when  you  sent  for  me. 

17.  No  one  believes  that  a  soldier's  life  is  easy. 


X.    THE  PARTS   OF    SPEECH— The    Con- 
junction  and  the  Interjection 

80.  What  the  conjiinction  is. 

(a)  He  called  and  I  came. 

(6)  He  called  but  I  did  not  come. 

(c)  You  must  obey  the  law  or  take  the  conse- 

quences. 

(d)  Mary  and  I  sang. 

(e)  We  went  over  the  bridge  and  through  the  gate. 

Notice  the  connecting  nature  of  such  words  as 
andy  butj  and  or  in  the  sentences  given  above.  These 
words  which  have  for  their  duty  the  connecting  of 
words,  phrases,  and  clauses  are  called  conjunctions. 
Con  means  together,  and  junct  means  join. 

A  conjunction  is  a  word  which  connects  words, 
phrases,  or  clauses. 

81.  The  coordinating  conjimction.  In  the  sentences 
above,  notice  that  in  every  case  the  words,  phrases, 
or  clauses  connected  by  andj  but,  or  or  are  doing  the 
same  kind  of  work.  For  instance,  in  (a),  (6),  and  (c) 
the  clauses  are  both  independent;  in  (d)  Mary  and  I 
are  both  acting  as  subjects  of  sang;  in  (e),  over  the 
bridge  and  through  the  gate  are  adverbial  phrases  of 
the  same  rank. 

Conjunctions   that   connect   words,    phrases,    or 
(111) 


112  THE  CONJUNCTION  AND  INTERJECTION 

clauses  of  equal  rank  are  called  coordinating  con- 
junctions. Coordinating  means  putting  in  the  same 
rank. 

Coordinating    conjunctions    are    of    two    kinds: 
pure  conjunctions  and  conjunctive  adverbs.* 

82.  Pure  Conjimctions.  Pure  conjunctions  serve  to 
connect  words,  phrases,  or  clauses;  conjunctive  adverbs 
serve  to  connect  only  clauses. 

The  chief  pure  conjunctions^  are: 

and  or 

but  nor 

And  is  sometimes  linked  with  both;  either  with  or; 
and  neither  with  nor. 

Examples  of  pure  conjunctions  used  to  connect 
clauses: 

1.  Come  here  and  I  will  help  you. 

2.  He  said  he  would  come,  but  I  do  not  believe  him. 

3.  They  must  trust  their  leader  or  they  will  lose. 

4.  Either  he  is  wrong,  or  I  am. 

5.  He  is  not  wrong,  nor  am  I. 

Examples  of  pure  conjunctions  used  to  connect 
phrases : 

1.  Mary  owed  money  to  the  baker  and  to  the  ice-man. 

2.  You  owe  an  apology,  not  to  father,  but  to  me. 


*  This  classification  of  conjunctions  is  based  on  the  actual  work  done  by  the  con- 
junction. We  have  purposely  avoided  the  old  grouping  which  recognized  kinship 
between  the  conjunctive  adverb  and  certain  of  the  subordinating  conjunctions.  The 
classification  here  given  is  logical;  it  throws  light  upon  the  question  of  punctuation; 
it  is  simple.    See  Wooley's  Mechanics  of  Writing,  pp.  364,  132,  133. 

3  For  is  usually  classed  as  a  coordinating  conjunction.  Its  meaning  is  generally 
equivalent  to  because;  in  such  cases  it  is  logically  subordinate.  The  connection  is 
•ometimes  so  loose  as  to  justify  the  classification  of  for  as  a  coordinate  conjunction. 


THE  CONJUNCTIVE  ADVERB  US 

Examples  of  pure  conjunctions  used  to  connect 
words : 

1.  They  gave  the  class  numerals  in  honor  of  high 
athletic  standing  to  Harris  and  Loomis. 

2.  The  paying  teller  or  the  cashier  will  attend  to  your 
wants. 

3.  He  wants  neither  you  nor  me. 

Exercise 

Point  out  the  pure  conjunctions  in  the  following^ 
sentences.  Tell  whether  they  connect  words,  phrases, 
or  clauses. 

1.  Harding  sacrificed,  and  Ciunmings  was  caught  at 
third  base. 

2.  I  never  buy  magazines,  but  I  shall  make  an  exception 
to  my  rule  this  time. 

3.  You  may  take  the  parcel,  or  leave  it  to  be  delivered^ 

4.  There  are  two  expresses  to  New  York  this  morn- 
ing — one  at  ten,  and  one  at  eleven  o'clock. 

5.  Neither  the  salesman  in  the  book  store  nor  the 
proprietor  had  heard  of  the  volume  he  wanted. 

6.  Either  you  or  your  father  must  pay  the  bill. 

7.  She  resembles  both  her  father  and  her  mother. 

8.  ^'Neither  you  nor  James  may  go,''  said  mother. 

9.  Both  play  and  study  are  necessary. 

10.  He  knew  that  he  must  hurry  or  miss  the  train. 

83.  The  Conjimctive  Adverb.     The  chief  conjunctive 


adverbs  are: 

so 

moreover 

yet 

hence 

accordingly 

then 

nevertheless 

besides 

still 

however 

thus 

furthermore 

114  THE   CONJUNCTION  AND   INTERJECTION 

Examples  of  the  conjunctive  adverb  connecting 
the  clauses  of  compound  sentences  are  here  given. 

1.  It  was  growing  cold;  so  I  put  down  the  window. 

2.  She  was  incompetent;   hence  she  lost  her  place. 

3.  The  Boardwalk  was  crowded;  nevertheless,  I  felt 
lonely. 

4.  I  considered  that  he  was  taking  too  great  a  chance; 
however,  since  he  insisted,  I  allowed  him  to  go  ahead. 

5.  Don  has  not  the  head  for  quarter-back;  moreover, 
he  is  too  light  for  this  team. 

6.  The  soldiers  were  told  to  be  quiet;  accordingly, 
they  crept  forward  on  their  hands  and  knees  and  scarcely 
whispered. 

7.  That  location  is  not  fashionable;  besides,  it  is 
inconvenient. 

8.  Tom  started  an  expense  account;  thus  he  hoped  to 
cut  down  unnecessary^  expenditures. 

9.  He  is  a  good  driver;  yet  I  always  feel  nervous  in 
his  car. 

10.  I  prefer  not  to  take  the  risk;  still,  I  shall  have  to. 

11.  He  stared  at  me  a  full  minute";  then  he  turned  and 
left  me. 

Note  that  the  second  clause  of  a  compound  sen- 
tence connected  by  and  may  be  separated  from  the 
first  clause  by  a  comma.  But  the  second  clause  of  a 
compound  sentence  introduced  by  a  conjunctive 
adverb  may  not  be  separated  from  the  first  clause 
by  a  comma;  a  clause  in  a  compound  sentence  intro- 
duced by  a  conjunctive  adverb  must  be  separated 
from  the  preceding  clause  by  a  semicolon  (;). 

Pure  conjunctions  may  be  used  only  as  conjunc- 
tions.     Conjunctive  adverbs  may  be  used   as  plain 


THE   CONJUNCTIVE  ADVERB  115 

adverbs.  Distinguish  a  word  used  as  a  conjunctive 
adverb  from  the  same  word  used  as  a  plain  adverb 
as  follows: 

If  the  word  directly  modifies  some  verb,  adjective, 
or  other  adverb  in  the  clause,  or  sentence,  it  is  a  plain 
adverb.     Example: 

(a)  He  did  it  otherwise. 

If  the  word  does  the  connecting  for  the  whole 
clause,  it  is  a  conjunctive  adverb.     Example : 

(6)  I  had  to  promise;   otherwise  he  would  not  have 
come. 

Even  if  the  second  clause  of  (h)  were  written,  as 
it  might  be,  as  a  sentence  by  itself,  otherwise  would 
still  be  a  conjunctive  adverb,  for  it  modifies  the  whole 
clause  and  not  any  single  word  in  it. 

You  can  substitute  another  adverb,  differently, 
for  instance,  in  (a).  Try  to  substitute  differently  for 
otherwise  in  (6). 

Exercise 

Point  out  the  coordinating  conjunctions  in  the 
following  sentences: 

1.  A  shot  shattered  Wolfe's  wrist,  but  he  wrapped  his 
handkerchief  about  it  and  pressed  on.  Another  shot  struck 
him,  and  he  still  pressed  on,  but  when  the  third  lodged,  he 
fell  mortally  wounded. 

2.  Every  sentence  that  he  writes  is  homely,  rugged, 
and  strong. 

3.  It  was  a  hard  experience;  still,  I  am  glad  I  had  it. 


116  THE  CONJUNCTION  AND  INTERJECTION 

4.  He  had  been  traveling  some  days  both  by  sea  and 
by  rail. 

5.  Did  you  spend  your  Easter  vacation  in  the  city  or 
in  the  country? 

6.  The  sky  to  the  north  and  west  was  darkening. 

7.  It  is  his  business;  therefore,  let  him  see  to  it. 

8.  I  did  the  best  I  could;  hence  I  feel  no  regrets. 

9.  Merton  always  does  the  right  thing,  but  I  do  not 
want  him  to  undertake  this  enterprise. 

10.  She  knows  better  than  that;  therefore,  she  has  no 
excuse  for  her  failure. 

Exercise 

Indicate  which  words  are  used  as  conjunctive 
adverbs  and  which  are  used  as  plain  adverbs  in  the 
following  sentences: 

1.  He  was  tired;  furthermore  he  had  no  gun. 

2.  She  was  quiet  and  obedient;  still,  I  knew  she  was 
rebelling  against  every  direction  that  was  given  to  her. 

3.  They  asked  for  a  big  man;  accordingly  Benson  was 
sent. 

4.  I  read  the  rules  and  acted  accordingly. 

5.  I  shall  not  get  a  winter  hat  yet. 

6.  They  do  not  merit  sympathy;  yet  I  feel  sorry  for 
them. 

84.  Subordinating  con  junctions. 

(a)  I  shall  come  when  I  am  ready. 
(6)  Mary  will  go  if  she  is  invited, 
(c)   Put  the  baseball  bats  where  no  one  will  find 
them. 


SUBORDINATING   CONJUNCTIONS  117 

In  such  sentences  as  those  above  you  have  noticed 
the  connecting  nature  of  the  words,  when,  if,  and 
where.  They  differ,  however,  from  the  conjunctions 
you  have  just  studied,  in  that  they  introduce  sub- 
ordinate clauses.  As  you  learned  in  section  12, 
a  subordinate  clause  is  one  which  is  dependent  upon 
some  independent  clause. 

Conjunctions  which  connect  subordinate  clauses 
with  independent  clauses  are  called  subordinating 
conjtmctions.  Subordinating  means  putting  in  a  lower 
rank.  You  have  already  seen  the  subordinating 
conjunction  at  work  introducing  adverbial  and  adjective 
clauses.     See  note  on  adjective  clause,  page  107. 

The  chief  subordinating  conjunctions  are: 


when 

though 

that 

since 

where 

whether 

because 

while 

if 

lest 

than 

provided 

although 

unless 

as 

after 

Exercise 

Point  out  the  subordinating  conjunctions  in  the 
following  sentences : 

1.  I  would  go  if  I  thought  that  I  could  do  any  good. 

2.  After  I  had  finished  with. him,  he  was  a  humbled 
youngster. 

3.  There  has  never  been  any  trouble  since  we  hired 
Jordan. 

4.  You  watch  the  office  while  I  eat  my  luncheon,  please. 

5.  I  shall  tie  this  string  on  your  finger,  lest  you  forget. 

6.  I  shall  not  go  ahead  unless  you  will  share  the 
responsibility. 


118  THE   CONJUNCTION   AND   INTERJECTION 

7.  I  told  him  that  I  could  not  go. 

8.  You  endured  the  strain  longer  than  I  did. 

9.  Will  you  find  out  whether  or  not  Mr.  King  has  come 
in,  please? 

10.  Put  this  where  it  will  be  safe. 

11.  I  will  go,  although  I  think  the  whole  thing  useless. 

12.  He  waited  because  he  was  afraid. 

13.  There  is  no  peace  where  there  is  noise. 

14.  Write  early  if  you  wish  immediate  attention. 

Distinguish  between- the  subordinating  conjunction 
and  the  same  word  used  as  a  plain  adverb.  The  con- 
junction connects;  the  plain  adverb  directly  modifies 
a  verb,  adjective,  or  other  adverb. 

Subordinating  conjunction :    I  will  go  where  you  go. 

Plain  adverb :     Where  are  you  going? 

Subordinating  conjunction:  I  discharged  him, 
since  you  wished  it. 

Plain  adverb:  He  went  away,  and  I  have  never 
heard  of  him  since. 

There  are,  to  sum  up,  two  classes  of  conjunctions : 

1.  Coordinating: 

(a)  Pure  conjunctions. 
(6)  Conjunctive  adverbs. 

2.  Subordinating. 

Exercise 

Tell  which  conjunctions  in  the  following  sentences 
are  coordinating,  and  which  are  subordinating.  Ask 
yourself:  Does  the  conjunction  connect  clauses  of  equal 
rank  or  of  unequal  rank? 


CONJUNCTIONS  119 

1.  His  arrival  was  soon  known,  as  he  was  seen  walk- 
ing with  the  rector. 

"2.  Although  he  was  desperately  anxious  to  win,  he 
played  the  game  with  scrupulous  fairness. 

3.  Some  days  passed  before  they  received  any  satis- 
faction. 

4.  After  the  party  had  admired  the  view,  we  took 
them  into  the  house. 

5.  When  they  ascended  the  steps  to  the  hall,  even 
Sir  WilHam  did  not  look  calm. 

6.  Your  resignation  is  imfortunate,  because  the  firm 
can  ill  afford  to  lose  you. 

7.  I  would  have  come  if  my  train  had  been  on  time. 

8.  After  you  have  returned  from  the  hospital,  I  will 
meet  you  at  the  library. 

9.  I  was  unacquainted  with  the  neighborhood,  but  I 
found  every  one  willing  to  direct  me. 

10.  We  knew  that  we  were  a  little  late,  for  when  the 
chauffeur  drew  up  at  the  office,  the  bell  rang  twelve  strokes. 

11.  Nevins  did  not  know  the  game;    nevertheless  he 
made  a  good  substitute. 

12.  Such  people  live  by  force  alone,  and  the  only  thing 
they  understand  is  greater  force. 

13.  Murray  spoke  before  he  thought. 

14.  If  you  are  not  for  me,  you  are  against  me. 

15.  Irwin  has  failed  because  he  himself  is  weak. 

16.  We  can  do  this  while  you  wait. 

17.  You  have  broken  the  rule;   therefore,  3'ou  will  be 
punished. 

18.  They  did  not  know  which  train  to  take  until  they 
had  asked  Harry. 

19.  If  you  buy  more  stock,  you  will  have  control  of  the 
company. 

20.  As  soon  as  it  was  possible,  Garvey  crept  to  the  ledge. 


120  THE  CONJUNCTION  AND  INTERJECTION 

85.  What  the  interjection  is.  In  the  sentence, 
Oh,  this  will  never  do!  the  word  Oh,  which  adds  to 
the  feehng  expressed  by  the  sentence,  has  no  definite 
connection  grammatically  with  any  particular  part 
of  the  sentence,  but  it  bears  a  relationship  to  the 
sentence  as  a  whole.  It  is  a  word  thrown  in  and  is 
called  the  interjection. 

An  interjection  is  a  word  that  is  used  to  express 
sudden  or  strong  feeling. 

Examples  of  the  interjection  are: 

1.  Pshaw!  I  am  very  much  disappointed. 

2.  Alas!  Poor  Cock  Robin  will  never  return! 

3.  "Ah!''  breathed  the  crowd. 

4.  Hurrahf  We've  won! 

5.  Good  work!  That's  excellent  pitching. 

6.  Have  mercy  on  Thy  people,  0  Lord! 

The  interjection  Oh  is  capitalized  only  when  it 
begins  a  sentence.  The  inter j  ection  0  is  used  ordinarily 
with  the  names  of  persons,  and  is  always  capitalized. 


XI.     FUNCTION 

86.  Function.  Very  many  of  your  difficulties  with 
grammar  will  disappear  if  you  will  remember  that  the 
classification  of  a  word,  phrase,  or  clause,  depends  on 
the  work  which  it  does  in  the  sentence.  This  idea 
has  been  emphasized  again  and  again  in  this  book. 
The  part  of  speech  of  a  word,  phrase,  or  clause  is 
determined  by  the  work  done  or  function  served  by 
that  word,  phrase,  or  clause  in  the  sentence. 

The  following  illustrations  show  how  the  work  of  a 
word,  phrase,  or  clause  determines  its  part  of  speech. 

(a)  The  moving  finger  writes. 

Here  moving  is  an  adjective,  because  it  is  doing 
the  work  of  an  adjective. 

(6)  Moving  usually  takes  place  in  the  spring. 

Here  moving  is  a  noun,  because  it  is  doing  the 
work  of  a  noun. 

(c)   The    cloud    was    moving    slowly    toward    the 
horizon. 

Here  moving  is  a  part  of  the  verb,  because  it  is 
doing  the  work  of  a  verb. 

(a)  He  threw  the  ball  over  the  fence. 

Over  the  fence  is  here  an  adverb,  because  it  is 
doing  the  work  of  an  adverb. 

(121) 


was. 


122  FUNCTION 

(b)  Over  the  fence  is  out. 

Over  the  fence  is  here  a  noun,  because  it  is  doing 
the  work  of  a  noun. 

(a)  He  knew  that  I  was  afraid. 

That  I  was  afraid  is  here  a  noun,  for  it  is  the  object 
of  knew. 

(6)  That  I  was  afraid  was  no  disgrace. 
That  I  was  afraid  is  here  a  noun  used  as  subject  of 

(c)  I  did  not  go  because  I  was  afraid. 
Here  the  clause  is  an  adverb. 

(d)  They  changed  the  plans  for  no  reason  except 
that  I  was  afraid. 

Here  the  clause  is  a  noun  governed  by  the  preposi- 
tion except. 

Exercise 

Name  the  part  of  speech  of  the  italicized  words 
in  the  following  sentences : 

1.  He   called   her   his   whistling   mother   because  she 
always  summoned  him  by  means  of  a  clear,  bird-Hke  whistle. 

2.  Whistling  was  too  difficult  a  task  for  little  George. 

3.  Sam  cheered  himself  during  the  lonesome  hours  by 
whistling  to  himself. 

4.  The  wind  was  whistling  through  the  trees.  * 

5.  Mr.  Wilson  knows  many  people. 

6.  Many  of  us  felt  that  here  lay  our  duty. 


FUNCTION  123 

7.  I  thought  grandfather  a  verj^  handsome  man. 

8.  Handsome  is  as  handsome  does. 

9.  Beauty  is  its  own  excuse  for  being. 

10.  Being  is  better  than  seeming. 

11.  He  received  favors  without  asking  for  them. 

12.  Old  Thomas  was  asking  for  aid. 

13.  I  want  no  discussion  of  the  subject. 

14.  Want  of  decency  is  want  of  sense. 

15.  I  call  him  a  great  man. 

16.  The  call  to  arms  came  opportunely. 

17.  The  dancing  leaves  drifted  to  the  ground. 

18.  Dancing  is  pleasant  exercise. 

19.  The  children  were  dancing  around  the  Maypole. 

20.  The  fishermen  came  home  with  a  good  catch  today. 

21.  A  song  like  "Tipperary"  or    ''Dixie"  is    sure  to 
catch  popular  fancy. 

22.  A  burst  of  military  music  told  that  the  parade  was 
coming. 

23.  The  bag  burst,  and  the  apples  rolled  in  all  directions. 

24.  My  cup  runneth  over. 

25.  The  kettle  stands  over  the  fire. 


XII.    VERB  FORMS 

87.  Tense.     Besides  expressing  action,  verbs  express 
the  time  of  that  action. 

They  express  present  time:  I  call. 
They  express  past  time:  I  called. 
They  express  future  time:     I  shall  call. 

The  word  for  time  in  grammar  is  tense. 

There  are  three  different  tenses:  the  present 
tense,  which  denotes  present  time;  the  past  tense, 
which  denotes  past  time ;  and  the  future  tense,  which 
denotes  time  that  is  to  come.  Every  tense  has  six 
possible  forms.     The  three  tenses  follow : 


Singular 

Present  Tense 

Plural 

1.  I  call 

2.  you  call 

3.  he  calls 

Past  Tense 

we  call 
you  call 
they  call 

1.  I  called 

2.  you  called 

3.  he  called 

Future  Tense 

we  called 
you  called 
they  called 

1.  I  shall  call 

2.  you  will  call 

3.  he  will  call 

(124) 

we  shall  call 
you  will  call 
they  will  call 

AUXILIARY  VERBS 


125 


The  third  person  singular  may  have  she  or  ity 
or  a  noun  as  subject  instead  of  he. 

In  the  second  person  singular  an  ancient  form, 
thou,  may  be  used.  When  it  is  used,  -est  is  added  to 
the  verb;  as,  thou  callest.  The  second  person  plural 
to  correspond  with  this  is,  ye  call.  These  forms  are 
rarely  employed  now  except  in  the  Bible  or  in  poetry; 
so  in  the  arrangement  of  the  forms  of  the  verb  they 
will  be  omitted. 

88.  Auxiliary  verbs.  The  verbs  shall  and  mil,  be- 
cause they  help  form  tenses  of  other  verbs,  are  called 
auxiliary  or  helping  verbs.  Later  you  will  learn  that 
shall  and  mil  have  other  uses,  but  just  now  you  need 
know  only  that  plain  future  time  is  expressed  by  shall  in 
some  forms  and  will  in  other  forms  of  the  future  tense. 

The  word  have  can  be  used  not  only  as  a  verb  to 
help  form  certain  tenses  of  other  verbs,  but  also  as 
an  independent  verb.     Here  are  the  three  tenses: 


Singular 


Plural 


Present 


1.  I  have 

we  have 

2.  you  have 

you  have 

3.  he  has 

Past 

they  have 

L  I  had 

we  had 

2.  you  had 

you  had 

3.  he  had 

Future 

they  had 

1.  I  shall  have 

we  shall  have 

2.  you  will  have 

you  will  have 

3.  he  will  have 

they  will  have 

126  VERB   FORMS 

89.  The  perfect  tenses.  In  addition  to  the  three 
tenses  which  you  have  learned,  there  are  three  others, 
which  not  only  express  time,  but  express  the  relation 
of  that  time  to  some  other  time. 

The  first  of  these  additional  tenses  tells  the  time 
with  reference  to  the  present ;  it  states  an  action  which 
at  the  present  moment  is  completed.     Examples: 

I  have  called. 
I  have  laughed. 

This  tense  is  called  the  present  perfect  tense;  present 
because  it  refers  to  and  even  includes  the  present  time, 
perfect  because  the  action  is  spoken  of  as  completed. 

Note  exactly  how  this  present  perfect  tense  is 
formed.  I  have  called.  Have  is  the  present  tense  of 
the  verb  have.  The  verb  have  is  the  auxiliary  which 
helps  to  form  all  the  perfect  tenses.  Note  that  the 
present  tense  of  have  is  used  to  help  form  the  present 
perfect  tense. 

The  other  form  which  helps  make  the  present 
perfect  tense'  of  call  is  called.  This  looks  exactly 
like  the  past  tense,  but  it  is  not.  It  is  a  dependent 
form  of  the  verb  named  the  participle. 

The  participle  is  a  dependent  form  of  the  verb 
which  never  can  stand  alone  to  do  its  work  as  the 
past  tense  can;  it  is  always  found  depending  upon 
some  word  or  words  to  help  it  do  its  work.  In  the 
perfect  tenses  the  past  participle  is  always  joined  to 
the  verb  have. 

To  form  the  present  perfect  tense,  then,  you 
join  the  present  tense  of  have  to  the  past  participle  of 
whatever  verb  you  are  using. 


THE  PERFECT  TENSES  127 

The  present  perfect  tense  of  call,  for  instance,  is: 

Singular  Plural 

1.  I  have  called  we  have  called 

2.  you  have  called  you  have  called 

3.  he  has  called  they  have  called 

The  second  of  the  perfect  tenses  tells  time  with 
reference  to  the  past.  That  is,  it  states  an  action 
which  was  completed  before  some  given  past  time. 
For  instance : 

I  had  telephoned  before  your  note  came. 

You  see  the  act  of  telephoning  had  actually  been 
completed  before  the  moment  of  past  time  when  your 
note  came. 

The  name  of  the  perfect  tense  which  states  that 
an  action  was  completed  before  some  given  past  time 
is  the  past  perfect  tense.  It  nlay  help  you  to  remember 
the  meaning  of  this  tense  if  you  think  the  action  was 
perfectly  complete  before  some  definite  past  time. 
This  tense  is  formed  in  the  same  way  as  the  present 
perfect  tense,  except,  of  course,  that  you  employ  the 
past  tense  of  have  instead  of  the  present. 

To  form  the  past  perfect  tense,  you  join  had,  the 
past  tense  of  have,  to  the  past  participle  of  whatever 
verb  you  are  using.  The  past  perfect  tense  of  call, 
for  instance,  is : 

Singular  Plural 

1.  I  had  called  we  had  called 

2.  you  had  called  you  had  called 

3.  he  had  called  they  had  called 


128  VERB   FORMS 

The  third  of  the  additional  tenses  tells  time  with 
reference  to  the  future.  For  example,  your  friend 
says  to  you:  ''Shall  you  leave  at  two  o'clock?'^  You 
look  ahead  and  see  that  your  plans  will  necessitate 
your  leaving  at  one-thirty.  So  you  reply:  "No, 
I  shall  have  left  by  that  time."  You  see  you  are  speak- 
ing of  an  act  which  will  have  been  completed  by 
two  o'clock;  you  are  speaking  of  an  act  which  will 
be  completed  with  reference  to  the  future.  The 
name  of  the  tense  that  tells  time  with  reference  to 
the  future  is  the  future  perfect  tense.  It  is  formed 
on  the  same  principle  as  the  other  perfect  tenses. 
The  future  tense  of  have  is  joined  to  the  past  participle 
of  the  given  verb.  The  future  perfect  tense  of  the 
verb  call  is : 

Singular  Plural 

1.  I  shall  have  called  we  shall  have  called 

2.  you  will  have  called  you  will  have  called 

3.  he  will  have  called  they  will  have  called 

Like  other  verbs,  the  verb  have  has  three  perfect 
tenses.  They  are  formed  in  the  usual  way :  the  proper 
tense  of  have  is  joined  to  the  past  participle  of  the 
verb.  The  past  participle  of  have  is  had.  You  see 
have  helps  to  form  its  own  perfect  tenses.     They  are: 

Singular  Plural 

Present  Perfect 

1.  I  have  had  we  have  had 

2.  you  have  had  you  have  had 

3.  he  has  had  they  have  had 


REGULAR  AND   IRREGULAR   VERBS         129 

Singular  Plural 

Past  Perfect 
1.  2.  3.  I,  you,  he  had  had      we,  you,  they  had  had 

Future  Perfect 

1.  I  shall  have  had  we  shall  have  had 

2.  you  will  have  had  you  will  have  had 

3.  he  will  have  had  they  will  have  had 

You  now  know  definitely  that  the  way  to  form 
the  perfect  tenses  of  any  verb  is  to  join  the  proper 
tense  of  have  to  the  past  participle  of  the  verb  you 
are  using.  The  next  question  is,  how  do  you  know 
what  the  past  participle  of  the  verb  is? 

90.  Regular  and  irregular  verbs.  Verbs  are  generally 
divided  into  two  classes.  These  classes  are  regular 
and  irregular.  Regular  verbs  are  those  whose  past 
tense  and  past  participle  are  formed  by  adding  ed 
to  the  present.     For  instance: 


Present 

Past 

Past  Participle 

scold 

scolded 

scolded 

call 

called 

called 

bake 

baked 

baked 

love 

loved 

loved 

Note  that  when  the  present  tense  ends  with  e, 
only  the  d  is  added  to  make  the  past  tense. 

91.  The  principal  parts  of  verbs.  You  have  to 
learn  which  verbs  are  regular  by  observing  them  in 
daily  use.     You  will  have  little  difficulty  in  making 


130 


VERB  FORMS 


this  distinction  if  you  will  learn  for  every  verb  you 
meet  the  three  forms  given  above.  It  is  important  to 
know  these  three  forms,  for  they  represent  what  are 
called  the  principal  parts  of  the  verb.  They  are  so 
called,  because,  if  you  know  them,  you  can  form  any 
tense  of  the  verb. 

You  may  say  that  since  the  past  tense  and  past 
participle  of  the  verb  are  alike,  there  is  no  need  of 
learning  both  of  these  forms.  But  remember  that 
these  forms  only  look  alike;  their  work  is  different. 
Besides,  you  can  not  be  sure  that  they  look  alike 
except  in  the  case  of  a  regular  verb,  and  some  that 
you  might  think  regular  are  not  so;  as,  hurst,  hurst, 
hurst.  The  irregular  verbs  are  those  which  do  not 
form  their  past  tense  and  past  participle  by  adding 
ed  to  the  present.  The  principal  parts  of  these  verbs 
you  must  learn  by  heart.  Here  are  some  of  the  most 
important  ones: 


Present 

Past 

Past  Participle 

abide 

abode 

abode 

am  (be) 

was 

been 

arise 

arose 

arisen 

awake 

awoke 

awaked 

bear  (bring  forth) 

bore 

born 

bear  (carry) 

bore 

borne 

beat 

beat 

beat,  beaten 

begin 

began 

begun 

behold 

beheld 

beheld 

bend 

bent 

bent 

bereave 

bereft 

bereft 

beseech 

besought 

besought 

bet 

bet 

bet 

THE   PRINCIPAL  PARTS 


131 


Present 

Past 

Past  Participle 

bid  (command) 

bade,  bid 

bidden,  bid 

bid  (offer  money) 

bid 

bid 

bind 

bound 

bound 

bleed 

bled 

bled 

blow 

blew 

blown 

break 

broke 

broken 

breed 

bred 

bred 

bring 

brought 

brought 

build 

built 

built 

burst 

burst 

burst 

buy 

bought 

bought 

cast 

cast 

cast 

catch 

caught 

caught 

chide 

chid 

chid,  chidden 

choose 

chose 

chosen 

cleave 

cleft 

cleft,  cloven 

cling 

clung 

clung 

come 

came 

come 

cost 

cost 

cost 

creep 

crept 

crept 

cut 

cut 

cut 

deal 

dealt 

dealt 

dig 

dug 

dug 

do 

did 

done 

draw 

drew 

drawn 

drink 

drank 

drunk 

drive 

drove 

driven 

dwell 

dwelt 

dwelt 

eat 

ate 

eaten 

fall 

fell 

fallen 

feed 

fed 

fed 

feel 

felt 

felt 

fight 

fought 

fought 

132 

Present 
find 
flee 
fling 

fly 

forbear 

forget 

forsake 

get 

gird 

give 

go 

grind 

grow 

hang 

have 

hear 

hide 

hit 

hold 

hurt 

keep 

kneel 

knit 

know   . 

lay 

lead 

leave 

lend 

let 

lie 

lose 

make 

mean 


VERB 

FORMS 

Past 

Past  Participle 

found 

found 

fled 

fled 

flung 

flung 

flew 

flown 

forbore 

forborne 

forgot 

forgotten,  forgot 

forsook 

forsaken 

got 

got 

girt 

girt 

gave 

given 

went 

gone 

ground 

ground 

grew 

grown 

hung 

hung,  hanged 

had 

had 

heard 

heard 

hid 

hidden 

hit 

hit 

held 

held 

hurt 

hurt 

kept 

kept 

knelt 

knelt 

knit 

knit 

knew 

known 

laid 

laid 

led 

led 

left 

left 

lent 

lent 

let 

let 

lay 

lain 

lost 

lost 

made 

made 

meant 

meant 

THE  PRINCIPAL  PARTS 


]33 


Present 

meet 

pay 

put 

quit 

read 

rend 

rid 

ride 

ring 

rise 

run 

say 

see 

seek 

sell 

send 

set 

shake 

shed 

shine 

shoe 

shoot 

show 

shrink 

shrive 

shut 

sing 

sink 

sit 

slay 

sleep 

slide 

sling 


Past 

Past  Participle 

met 

niet 

paid 

paid 

put 

put 

quit 

quit 

read 

read 

rent 

rent 

rid 

rid 

rode 

ridden 

rang 

rung 

rose 

risen 

ran 

run 

said 

said 

saw 

seen 

sought 

sought 

sold 

sold 

sent 

sent 

set 

set 

shook 

shaken 

shed 

shed 

shone 

shone 

shod 

shod 

shot 

shot 

showed 

shown 

shrank 

shrunk 

shrived,  shrove 

shriven 

shut 

shut 

sang 

sung 

sank 

sunk 

sat 

sat 

slew 

slain 

slept 

slept 

sUd 

slid 

slung 

slung 

134 

VI RB 

FORMS 

Present 

Past 

Past  Participle 

slit 

slit 

slit 

smite 

smote 

smitten 

sow 

sowed 

sown 

speak 

spoke 

spoken 

speed 

sped 

sped 

spend 

spent 

spent 

spin 

spun 

spun 

spit 

spat 

spit 

split 

split 

split 

spread 

spread 

spread 

spring 

sprang 

sprung 

stand 

stood 

stood 

steal 

stole 

stolen 

stick 

stuck 

stuck 

sting 

stung 

stung 

strike 

struck 

struck 

string 

strung 

strung 

strive 

strove 

striven 

swear 

swore 

sworn 

s\^eep 

swept 

swept 

swim 

swam 

swum 

swing 

swung 

swung 

take 

took 

taken 

teach 

taught 

taught 

tear 

tore 

torn 

tell 

told 

told 

think 

thought 

thought 

thrive 

throve 

thrived,  thriven 

throw 

threw 

thrown 

thrust 

thrust 

thrust 

tread 

trod 

trodden 

wear 

wore 

worn 

weave 

wove 

WO^TU 

TENSE 

FORMS 

Present 

Past 

Past  Participle 

weep 

wept 

wept 

wet 

wet 

wet 

win 

won 

won 

wind 

wound 

wound 

AVTing 

wrung 

wrung 

write 

wrote 

written 

135 


The  perfect  tenses  of  these  irregular  verbs  are 
formed  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  those  of  the  regular 
ones.  Here,  however,  you  see  the  absolute  necessity 
of  knowing  the  three  principal  parts  of  the  verb, 
because  the  past  tense  and  the  past  participle  of  the 
verb  differ  in  form. 

The  six  tenses  of  go  follow: 


Singular 

1.  I  go 

2.  you  go 

3.  he  goes 


Present 


Plural 


we  go 
you  go 
they  go 


1.  I  went 

2.  you  went 

3.  he  went 


1.  I  shall  go 

2.  you  will  go 

3.  he  will  go 


Future 


we  went 
you  went 
they  went 


we  shall  go 
you  will  go 
they  will  go 


If  you  will  look  back  at  the  principal  parts  of  go, 
you  will  see  that  gone  is  the  past  participle.      To 


136  VERB  FORMS 

form  the  present  perfect  tense,  you  combine  the 
present  tense  of  have  with  the  past  participle  of  the 
verb  you  are  forming. 

The  present  perfect  tense  of  go,  then,  is: 

Singular  Plural 

1.  I  have  gone  we  have  gone 

2.  you  have  gone  you  have  gone 

3.  he  has  gone  they  have  gone 

To  form  the  past  perfect  tense  of  go,  you  join 
the  past  tense  of  have  to  the  past  participle. 
The  past  perfect  tense  is : 

Singular  Plural 

1.  I  had  gone  we  had  gone 

2.  you  had  gone  you  had  gone 

3.  he  had  gone  they  had  gone 

To  form  the  future  perfect  tense  of  go,  you  join 
the  future  tense  of  have  to  the  past  participle. 
The  future  perfect  tense  is: 

Singular  Plural 

1.  I  shall  have  gone  we  shall  have  gone 

2.  you  will  have  gone  you  will  have  gone 

3.  he  will  have  gone  they  will  have  gone 

Exercises 

1.  Write  the  perfect  tenses  of  ten  of  the  verbs 
given  on  pages  130-135. 

2.  You  must  take  great  care  to  use  the  auxiliary 
have  with  the  proper  part  of  the  irregular  verb.  The 
auxiliary  have  is  never  joined  to  the  past  tense  of  an 


PROPER   \^RB   FORMS  137 

irregular  verb.  To  say  I  have  went,  I  have  came,  I 
have  saw,  I  have  ran,  is  to  violate  one  of  the  most 
important  rules  of  the  language.  Fill  the  blanks  in 
the  following  sentences  with  the  proper  form  of  the 
verb  given  in  brackets. 

1.  I all  the  big  parades  that  have  been  given 

in  this  city  for  a  number  of  years,     [see] 

2.  I all  I  could  afford  to  patriotic  associa- 
tions,    [give] 

3.  Charles in  many  of  the  big  races  for  his 

college,     [run] 

4.  He at  that  restaurant  for  years,     [eat] 

5.  All    those    boys   part   in   their   school 

athletics,     [take] 

6.  He his  best,  but  the  firm  has  had  to  dis- 
charge him.     [do] 

7.  She  to  the  Old  Ladies'   Home  every 

Saturday  for  years,      [go] 

8.  I  never  such  industry  as  that  boy  dis- 
played,    [see] 

9.  I never such  sweet  cantaloupes,     [eat] 

10.  I several  times,  but  I  have  never  found 

you  at  home,     [come] 

3.  Just  as  it  is  necessary  for  you  to  know  that  the 
auxiliary  verb  have  is  never  joined  to  the  past  tense, 
so  it  is  necessary  for  you  to  avoid  using  the  participle 
when  you  should  use  the  past  tense.  To  say  I  done, 
I  seen,  I  come,  is  to  make  a  very  bad  mistake.  Fill 
the  blanks  in  the  following  sentences  with  the  proper 
form  of  the  verb  given  in  brackets. 

1.  I to  school  yesterday,     [go] 

2.  I my  breakfast  at  eight  yesterday  morning,  [eat] 


138  VERB   FORMS 

3.  I  you  last  evening  as  you  boarded  the  car. 

[see] 

4.  I to  the  building  earlier  than  usual  this  morn- 
ing,    [come] 

5.  I  my  work  yesterday  as  quickly  as  possible. 

[do] 

6.  I  for  the  doctor  at  midnight  last  night,  for 

my  sister  was  ill.     [run] 

7.  I a  basket  of  fruit  to  the  hospital  last  Saturday. 

[take] 

8.  I to  the  theater  twice  last  week,     [go] 

9.  Ruth  the  parade  as  it  passed  Broad  street. 

[see] 

10.  James his  whistle  at  the  crossing  just  as  the 

team  drew  near,     [blow] 

11.  The  workman   and  the   organ-grinder   their 

lunch  together  yesterday  at  the  side  of  the  road,     [eat] 

12.  The  policeman  his  best  to  save  the  pursued 

cat.     [do] 

4.  Sometimes  other  mistakes  than  these  are  made 
in  the  use  of  verb  forms.  Knowed  for  knew,  give  for 
gave,  was  for  were,  drawed  for  drew,  blowed  for  blew, 
should  all  be  avoided  as  bad  errors. 

Correct  the  wrong  verb  forms  in  the  following 
sentences : 

1.  He  done  everything  he  could  to  hinder  me. 

2.  He  has  went  over  there  since  he  was  a  little  boy. 

3.  I  never  seen  such  a  sight  in  my  life. 

4.  I  have  not  took  that  medicine  after  all. 

5.  1  give  you  that  picture  yesterday,  didn't  I? 

6.  I  have  ate  too  much  candy. 

7.  I  blowed  the  horn,  but  he  did  not  hear  me. 


TENSE  FORMS  139 

8.  I  have  spoke  to  you  about  that  before. 

9.  I  drawed  the  line  straight. 

10.  I  have  never  knew  a  kinder  man. 

11.  I  knowed  you'd  make  trouble  for  us. 

12.  I  haven't  saw  that  magazine  in  weeks. 

13.  You  have  came  just  in  time. 

14.  You  might  have  went  earlier  if  we  had  knew  that 
>'ou  were  needed. 

15.  The  woman  done  her  level  best,  but  I  couldn't  hire 
her. 

16.  I  come  yesterday,  and  I  ast  him,  and  he  said  he 
would  give  me  the  book. 

17.  I'd  have  came  right  over  if  I  had  knew  you  was  in 
trouble. 

18.  I  run  as  fast  as  I  could,  but  what  good  did  it  do  me? 

19.  I  have  drank  cool  water  from  the  spring. 

92.  The  verb  be.  Be  may  be  used  independently, 
but  it  is  also  one  of  the  chief  auxiliary  or  helping  verbs. 
Its  forms  are  very  irregular,  and  must  be  learned  with 
care.     Here  they  are : 

Principal  parts : 

be  or  am  was  been 

Singular  Plural 

Present 

1.  I  am  we  are 

2.  you  are  you  are 

3.  he  is  they  are 

Past 

1.  I  was  '  we  were 

2.  you  were  you  were 

3.  he  was  they  were 


140  VERB  FORMS 

Singular  Plural 

Future 

1.  I  shall  be  we  shall  be 

2.  you  will  be  you  will  be 

3.  he  will  be  they  will  be 

Present  Perfect 

1.  I  have  been  we  have  been 

2.  you  have  been  you  have  been 

3.  he  has  been  they  have  been 

Past  Perfect 

1.  I  had  been  we  had  been 

2.  you  had  been  you  had  been 

3.  he  had  been  they  had  been 

Future  Perfect 

1.  I  shall  have  been  we  shall  have  been 

2.  you  will  have  been  you  will  have  been 

3.  he  will  have  been  they  will  have  been 

93.  Forming  the  passive  voice.  All  the  forms  you 
have  so  far  conjugated  have  been  the  active  forms. 
With  the  aid  of  the  auxiliary  verb  be,  you  will  now 
learn  to  form  the  passive  conjugation. 

The  rule  is  simple.  Join  the  proper  tense  of  be 
to  the  past  participle  of  the  given  verb. 

According  to  this  rule,  the  passive  forms  of  the 
verb  call  are  as  follows: 

Singular  Plural 

Present 

1.  I  am  called  we  are  called 

2.  you  are  called  you  are  called 

3.  he  is  called  they  are  called 


THE  PASSIVE  VOICE 


141 


Past 


1 .  I  was  called 

2.  you  were  called 

3.  he  was  called 


1.  I  shall  be  called 

2.  you  will  be  called 

3.  he  will  be  called 


Future 


we  were  called 
you  were  called 
they  were  called 


we  shall  be  called 
you  will  be  called 
they  will  be  called 


Present  Perfect 

1.  I  have  been  called  we  have  been  called 

2.  you  have  been  called  you  have  been  called 

3.  he  has  been  called  they  have  been  called 

Past  Perfect 

1.  I  had  been  called  we  had  been  called 

2.  you  had  been  called  you  had  been  called 

3.  he  had  been  called  they  had  been  called 

Future  Perfect 

1.  I  shall  have  been  called        we  shall  have  been  called 

2.  you  will  have  been  called      you  will  have  been  called 

3.  he  will  have  been  called        they  will  have  been  called 

Not  all  verbs  are  used  in  the  passive.      Laugh j 
for  instance,  is  not.     I  am  laughed  is  impossible. 


Exercise 

Write  in  the  passive  voice  the  six  tenses  of  scold^ 
warn,  and  teach. 

Use  in  sentences  the  forms  indicated  in  the  list 
following : 


142  VERB   FORMS 

1.  The  present  perfect  active,  third  person  singular, 
of  smm. 

2.  The  present  passive,  first  person  plural,  of  deceive. 

3.  The  future  perfect,  first  person  singular  of  go. 

4.  The  past  active,  second  person  plural  of  come, 

5.  The  past  passive,  third  person  plural,  of  deny. 

6.  The  past  perfect  passive,   first  person  plural,   of 
refiise. 

7.  The  future  passive,  first  person  singular,  of  grieve. 

8.  The  present  perfect  active,  third  person  plural,  of 
known. 

9.  Write  the  six  tenses  in  the  active  voice  and  the  six 
tenses  in  the  passive  voice  of  appoint. 

Use  one  form  of  each  tense  in  a  sentence. 

94.  Agreement  of  subject  and  verb  in  person  and 
number.  You  have  learned  that  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns change  their  form  to  indicate  person  and  number. 
In  studying  the  verb  forms  given  in  this  chapter, 
you  have  seen  that  the  verb  sometimes  changes  its 
form  according  to  the  person  and  number  of  its  subject. 
You  will  notice,  for  instance,  that  several  forms  of  he 
change  as  the  subject  changes. 

Singular  Plura.l 

First  person        I  am  we  are 

Second  person      you  are  you  are 

Third  person       he  is  they  are 

Most  verbs,  however,  make  very  few  changes  to 
indicate  person  and  number.  The  most  frequent 
change  occurs  in  the  third  person  singular,  as  is  evident 
in   the  inflected   forms  given   above.      Most  of  the 


AGREEMENT   OF  VERB  143 

cases  requiring  attention  in  this  connection  are  noted 
below. 

General  rule:  A  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in 
person  and  number. 

Note  these  special  instances: 

1.  Two  or  more  singular  subjects  connected  by 
and  take  a  plural  verb.     Example : 

Money  and  influence  are  what  I  need. 

2.  Be  careful  to  make  a  verb  agree  with  its  sub- 
ject, not  with  any  word  intervening  between  it  and 
the  subject. 

Wrong:  A  frank  discussion  of  the  principles 
involved  were  given. 

Right:  A  frank  discussion  of  the  principles 
involved  was  given. 

3.  Words  joined  to  the  subject  by  vrithy  including y 
as  well  as,  do  not  affect  the  number  of  the  subject. 

Right:  The  instructor,  as  well  as  the  boys,  was 
alarmed. 

4.  Nouns  modified  by  each^  every,  either,  neither, 
no,  etc.,  take  singular  verbs.     Example: 

Every  man  is  liable  for  military  service. 

5.  The  pronouns  each,  everybody,  anybody,  etc., 
take  singular  verbs.     Example: 

Everybody  likes  candy. 


144  VERB   FORMS 

6.  Nouns  in  the  singular  connected  by  or  or  nor 
take  a  singular  verb.     Example: 

Neither  Nathan  nor  Matthew  has  come. 

7.  Two  nouns,  one  singular  and  one  plural, 
connected  by  or  or  nor,  require  a  verb  to  take  the 
person  and  number  of  the  noun  nearer  it.     Example: 

Either  John  or  the  girls  are  to  blame. 

Neither  the  men  nor  their  employer  is  at  fault. 

8.  Nouns  that  indicate  a  group  (collective  nouns) 
take  a  plural  verb  when  the  members  of  the  group  are 
considered  individually  and  a  singular  verb  when  the 
group  is  considered  as  a  unit.     Examples : 

The  congregation  are  all  indignant. 
The  regiment  is  ready  to  advance. 

9.  Verbs  agree  in  person  and  number  with  the 
nearer  of  two  pronominal  subjects  connected  by  or 
or  nor.    Example : 

You  or  I  am  wanted  at  any  minute. 

Do  not  say:  There  is  a  peach  and  a  pear  in  the 
basket.  Change  the  construction  of  your  sentence 
in  order  to  avoid  this  offending  confusion  of  number. 
Say:  A  peach  and  a  pear  are  in  the  basket. 

Exercise 

Copy  the  following  sentences,  filling  in  the  blanks 
with  the  proper  form  selected  from  the  brackets : 

1.  The   baggage,    including   two   suitcases    and    two 
trunks  [was,  were]  lost. 


SEQUENCE   OF  TENSES  145 

2.  Neither  one  of  these  plays  [are,  is]  verj-  entertaining. 

3.  Ever^'body  [were,  was]  excited. 

4.  No  one  except  the  spectators  [was,  were]  aware  of 
the  damage  that  was  done. 

5.  The  company  of  soldiers  [were,  was]  located  in  a 
camp  in  New  Jersey. 

6.  Which  one  of  these  ties  [is,  are]  yours? 

7.  Either  you  or  John  [are,  is]  bound  to  go. 

8.  The  family  [is,  are]  all  well. 

9.  A  jury  of  twelve  men  [were,  was]  selected  for  the 
trial. 

10.  One  man  out  of  a  hundred  [was,  were]  chosen  as  a 
delegate. 

11.  A  part  of  the  candies  that  remained  [were,  was] 
uneatable. 

12.  Ted  or  Richard   [is,   are]  scheduled  to  help   this 
afternoon. 

13.  My  mother,  as  well  as  my  sisters  [are,  is]  going. 

14.  One  of  the  robbers  [has,  have]  been  caught. 

15.  City  Hall  Plaza,  with  its  hghts  and  decorations 
[were,  was]  a  beautiful  sight. 

16.  In  spite  of  all  obstacles  the  construction  of  the 
wireless  stations  [was,  were]  completed. 

17.  Each  of  the  men  chosen  [were,  was]  notified  by 
mail  and  [were,  was]  asked  to  report  at  once. 

18.  The  distinction  between  real  and  apparent  causes 
[are,  is]  often  difficult  to  make. 

19.  The  cost  of  these  typewriters  [have,  has]  risen. 

20.  One  of  the  arguments   he  offered   [seem,   seems] 
especially  convincing. 

95.  Sequence  of  tenses.     Study  this  sentence: 

I  came  to  the  gymnasium  as  soon  as  I  had  finished  my 
theme. 

10 


146  VERB   FORMS 

Here  are  two  verbs:  came,  the  verb  of  the  inde- 
pendent clause,  and  had  finished,  the  verb  of  the 
dependent  clause.  Which  action  occurred  earlier, 
came  or  had  finished?  Does  the  sentence  express 
correctly  the  relative  time  of  the  two  acts? 

Do  the  verbs  express  correctly  the  relative  time 
of  the  two  acts  in  the  following  sentences? 

1.  The  game  had  begun  before  I  arrived. 

2.  I  shall  write  you  as  soon  as  I  receive  the  necessary 
information. 

3.  He  will  have  gone  to  France  before  your  letter  reaches 
him. 

4.  When  our  soldiers  advanced,  the  enemy  retreated. 

The  tense  of  the  verb  in  the  dependent  clause 
depends  upon  the  time-relationship  which  that  clause 
bears  to  the  independent  clause. 

The  tense  of  the  verb  in  the  dependent  clause 
must  always  be  in  harmony  with  the  tense  of  the 
verb  in  the  independent  clause.     Examples : 

I  shall  go  if  you  wish  it. 

I  should  go  if  you  wished  it. 

I  should  have  gone  if  you  had  wished  it. 

If  I  have  the  key,  I  will  send  it. 

If  I  had  the  key,  I  would  send  it. 

If  I  had  had  the  key,  I  would  have  sent  it. 

The  relation  of  the  tenses  in  the  different  clauses 
of  a  sentence  is  called  the  sequence  of  tenses.  You 
will  have  little  trouble  with  sequence  of  tenses  if  you 
will  carefully  study  your  sentences  to  see  whether 


SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES  147 

or  not  you  have  said  exactly  what  you  mean.     For 
example,  study  this  sentence : 

Yesterday,  I  talked  to  a  sailor  who  escaped  from  a 
shipwreck. 

The  relative  time  of  these  two  acts  is  not  exactly 
expressed.  Which  occurred  first,  the  talking  or  the 
escaping?  You  can  express  the  relative  time  of  the 
two  acts  by  changing  the  tense  of  the  verb  escape. 

Yesterday,  I  talked  to  a  sailor  who  had  escaped  from 
shipwreck. 

Present  facts  and  unchangeable  truths  are  stated 
in  the  present  tense,  even  if  the  time  of  the  verb  of 
the  independent  clause  is  past  or  future.    For  example: 

(a)  Some  day  he  will  learn  that  honesty  pays. 

(6)  His  father  had  frequently  told  him  that  debt 

is  a  millstone  around  the  debtor's  neck, 
(c)  Did  he  tell  you  what  the  population  of  New 

York  is? 

96.  Direct  and  indirect  quotations.  Notice  that  a 
direct  quotation  gives  the  exact  words  of  the  speaker. 
In  changing  from  a  direct  to  an  indirect  quotation,  a 
change  of  tense  is  frequently  necessary.     For  instance : 

Direct  quotation:  His  father  had  said  to  him, 
"You  may  sell  the  horse  for  a  hundred  dollars  if  Mr. 
Wright  will  pay  no  more." 

Indirect  quotation:  His  father  had  told  him  that 
he  might  sell  the  horse  for  a  hundred  dollars  if  Mr. 
Wright  would  pay  no  more. 


148  VERB   FORMS 

97.  Harmony  of  verb  and  adverb.  Do  not  join  a 
verb  which  expresses  the  idea  that  the  action  has  been 
completed  with  an  adverb  which  shows  that  the 
action  has  not  yet  been  completed. 

Wrong:     I  didn^t  finish  it  yet. 
Right:     I  haven't  finished  it  yet. 

Exercise 

Copy   the   following   sentences,  filling  the  blank 
with  the  correct  form  of  the  verb  in  brackets: 


[run] 


1.  When  the  gong  sounded,  we  all for  the  goal. 

2.  The  first  thing  he  knew  of  it  was  that  his  employer 
him.     [discharge] 


[sell] 
[be] 


3.  It  is  just  a  month  to-day  since  I here,     [come] 

4.  I • her  ever  since  she  was  born,     [know] 

5.  I her  shoes  since  she  was  a  little  girl. 

6.  Six  months  ago  I  concluded  that  I all  wrong. 


7.  I  did  this  before  you in.     [come] 

8.  I  have  never  seen  a  boy  who such  a 

struggle,     [make] 

9.  I  saw  her  before  you the  street,     [crossj 

10.  He  said  he acquainted  with  the  city,     [be] 

11.  She  will  be  frightened  if  she the  animal,     [see] 

12.  I  hoped  to  see  you  before  I to  town,     [come] 

13.  It  is  a  year  ago  to-day  since  I you.     [meet] 

14.  I   had   reached   the   house   before   Kenyon   ■ . 

[telegraph] 

15.  Six  ingots  were  heated  to  white  heat,  and  then  one 
out  of  the  oven,     [take] 


MOOD  149 

16.  He  knew  that  the  mail  delivered  at  eight 

every  day.     [be] 

17.  He  was  asked  if  he  knew  where  Waterloo .     [be] 

18.  He  was  unfamiliar  with  London,  but  he  showed  us 
where  Westminster .     [be] 

Write  the  following  sentences  correctly : 

1.  I  didn't  do  it  yet. 

2.  I  didn't  see  her  yet. 

3.  I  didn't  read  the  letter  yet. 

4.  He  didn't  send  the  telegram  yet. 

5.  Grandmother  did  not  make  the  cake  yet. 

98.  Participles.  You  have  learned  the  form  of  the 
past  participles  called  and  gone  for  the  verbs  call  and 
go.  In  all  there  are  five  participles  for  every  verb, 
and  these,  like  the  rest  of  the  verb,  have  active  and 
passive  forms.  Be  prepared  to  form  the  participles 
of  every  verb  after  the  model  you  see  here. 

Active  Passive 

Present     calling  being  called 

Past  called 

Perfect      having  called  having  been  called 

Exercise 

Form  the  participles  of  ten  irregular  verbs  chosen 
from  the  hst  on  pages  130-135. 

Use  the  five  participles  of  detain  in  as  many 
sentences. 

99.  Mood. 

(a)  John  went  home. 

(b)  If  the  sun  were  shining,  I  would  go. 

(c)  Please  bring  me  my  tape-measure. 


150  VERB   FORMS 

There  are,  as  you  see  from  studying  these  sentences, 
three  possible  ways  of  making  a  statement.  You 
can  state  it  as  a  matter  of  plain  fact,  as  in  (a).  You 
can  indicate  that  if  something  were  true  which  is  not 
true,  you  would  do  differently,  as  in  (h).  You  can 
give  a  command,  as  in  (c).  Differences  in  dress  or 
fashions  are  said  to  be  differences  in  the  mode  of  the 
day.  Differences  in  the  manner  of  making  a  state- 
ment by  changing  the  verb  form  are  also  said  to  be 
differences  in  mode,  or  mood.  From  the  three  possi- 
bilities expressed  in  the  sentences  above,  then,  you 
see  that  there  are  three  moods. 

100.  The  indicative  mood.  A  verb  which  merely 
makes  a  statement  of  fact,  as  in  (a),  is  said  to  be  in 
the  indicative  mood.  A  verb  that  asks  a  question 
is  said  to  be  in  the  indicative  mood.  This  is  the 
mood  most  used.  The  forms  of  the  six  tenses  which 
you  have  already  studied  make  up  the  indicative 
mood.    Examples  of  tenses  in  the  indicative  mood  are : 

1.  They  have  taken  my  word  for  it. 

2.  Will  you  go  with  me? 

101.  The  subjunctive  mood.  A  verb  which  expresses 
uncertainty,  or  wish,  or  something  contrary  to  fact 
upon  which  something  else  depends,  is  said  to  be  in 
the  subjunctive  mood.     Examples  are : 

Uncertainty:     If  he  come,  I  shall  rejoice. 
Wish:     Oh,  that  we  two  were  Maying! 
Something   contrary   to  fact,    on  which   something 
else  depends: 

If  the  sun  were  shining,  I  would  go. 

If  James  were  here,  mother  would  not  be  so  nervous. 


THE   SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD  151 

The  forms  of  the  verb  in  the  subjunctive  mood 
are  usually  preceded  by  i/.  Although  if  is  not  a  part 
of  the  verb,  it  so  often  accompanies  it  to  help  create 
the  idea  of  uncertainty  or  wish  that  we  place  it  before 
the  subjunctive  forms.  These  forms  are  very  much 
like  the  indicative;  in  fact,  often  you  can  not  tell 
from  the  written  or  spoken  form  which  mood  is  being 
used,  but  the  sense  of  the  sentence  always  helps  you  out 
of  this  difficulty.  The  subjunctive  mood  nowadays 
is  very  rarely  used;  the  sentence  expressing  a  condi- 
tion contrary  to  fact  is  the  use  which  requires  most 
attention.  Do  not  say,  ^^If  he  was  here,"  but  say, 
'^If  he  were  here." 

The  forms  of  the  subjunctive  mood  follow: 

ACTIVE 

Singular  Plural 

Present 

if  I,  you,  he  call  if  we,  you,  they  call 

Past 
if  I,  you,  he  called  if  we,  you,  they  called 

Future 
(lacking) 

Present  Perfect 

if  I,  you,  he  have  called  if  we,  you,  they  have 

called 


152  VERB   FORMS 

Singular  Plural 

Past  Perfect 
if  I,  you,  he  had  if  we,  you,  they  had 

called  called 


(lacking) 


Future  Perfect 


PASSIVE 

Present 
if  I,  you,  he  be  if  we,  you,  they  be 

called  called 

Past 
if  I,  you,  he  were  if  we,  you,  they  were 

called  called 

Future  and  Future  Perfect 
(lacking) 

Present  Perfect 
if  I,  you,  he  have  if  we,  you,  they  have 

been  called  been  called 

Past  Perfect 
if  I,  you,  he  had  if  we,  you,  they  had        * 

been  called  been  called 

Sometimes  the  subjunctive  is  expressed  without 
if  in  this  v^ay:    Had  he  called,  I  would  have  come. 

102.  The  imperative  mood.  A  command  must  always 
be  addressed  to  some  one;  therefore,  only  the  second 
person  singular  and  the  second  person  plural  are 
used  in   the  imperative  mood.      Although  the  form 


THE   INFINITIVE  153 

may  be  preceded  by  please,  the  mood  is  the  same, 
even  if  the  command  in  this  way  seems  much  softened. 
The  forms  follow : 

Active,  singular  and  plural:     You  call. 
Passive,  singular  and  plural :     You  be  called. 

The  subject  of  the  verb  in  the  imperative  mood 
is  always  you,  singular  or  plural,  and  since  this  fact 
is  so  well  understood,  the  subject  is  almost  always 
omitted. 

Exercise 

Tell  the  mood  of  every  verb  in  the  following 
sentences : 

1.  She  told  him  in  her  own  fashion  of  the  story  she 
had  heard. 

2.  The  man  followed  me  down  the  aisle  and  out  of  the 
car. 

3.  ''If  I  were  you — "  she  said,  and  then  stopped. 

4.  **Wait!"  commanded  the  general. 

5.  ''Do  not  go  there  again,"  said  father,  sternly. 

6.  The  little  shop  was  completely  filled  with  machinery. 

7.  If  this  statement  be  true,  I  am  safe. 

8.  March  offered  no  apolog>'  for  his  questions. 

9.  Jim  laid  his  pipe  on  the  table  and  stared  at  me  in 
amazement. 

10.  The  essentials  of  the  contract  are  all  agreed  upon. 

103.  Infinitives.  There  is  another  form  of  the  verb 
which  is  used  chiefly  in  dependent  constructions. 
This  form  is  called  the  infinitive.  The  form  of  the 
present  infinitive  is  always  the  same  as  the  present 


154  VERB   FORMS 

tense  of  the  verb,  except  in  the  case  of  the  verb  be. 
The  infinitive  is  usually  preceded  by  the  word  to, 
which  is  regarded  as  part  of  the  verb,  and  which  in 
this  connection  you  must  distinguish  from  the  preposi- 
tion to.  (See  chapter  IV.)  There  are  some  cases  in 
which  the  to  is  omitted  before  the  infinitive. 
Infinitives  of  the  verb  call: 

Active  Passive 

Present   to  call  to  be  called 

Perfect    to  have  called  to  have  been  called 

Infinitives  of  be: 

Present   to  be 
Perfect    to  have  been 

Exercise 

Form  the  infinitives  of  ten  verbs  chosen  from  the 
list  on  pages  130-135. 

Tell  the  tense  of  the  infinitives  in  the  following 
sentences : 

1.  I  am  glad  to  hear  of  your  success. 

2.  I  am  glad  to  have  seen  you. 

3.  I  am  sorry  to  tell  you  such  bad  news. 

4.  I  shall  be  willing  to  take  part  in  the  exercises. 

5.  I  refused  to  grant  her  request,  for  she  had  no  right 
to  make  it. 

6.  She  is  known  to  have  gone  there  in  the  past. 

7.  He  felt  glad  to  have  seen  the  president. 

8.  I  am  happy  to  serve  you. 

9.  It  is  hard  to  be  punished  undeservedly. 

10.  To  have  known  her  would  have  been  a  great 
pleasure. 


TENSE  OF  THE  INFINITIVE  155 

104.  Tense  of  the  infinitive.  It  is  important  that  the 
tense  of  the  infinitive  should  express  the  thought 
accurately  in  relation  to  the  time  of  the  verb  on  which 
it  depends. 

If  the  action  indicated  by  the  infinitive  is  taking 
place  at  the  same  time  as  that  of  the  verb  on  which 
it  depends,  or  if  the  action  indicated  by  the  infinitive 
is  future  with  respect  to  the  verb  on  which  it  depends, 
the  present  infinitive  should  be  used.      Examples: 

Action  taking  place  at  same  time: 

(a)  I  intended  to  go. 

(6)  He  wanted  to  come. 

(c)   I  have  hoped  to  go  abroad. 

Action  future  with  respect  to  verb: 
1  expected  to  write  a  letter. 

The  perfect  infinitive  is  used  to  denote  action 
which  is  completed  at  the  time  indicated  by  the  verb 
on  which  the  infinitive  depends.     Examples : 

(a)  He  is  reported  to  have  been  wounded. 
(6)  I  am  glad  to  have  seen  the  Alps. 

Supply  the  proper  forms  of  the  infinitive  in  the 
blanks  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  I  hoped  [to  finish,  to  have  finished]  before  you 
arrived. 

2.  He  thought  it  his  duty  [to  support,  to  have  sup- 
ported] his  mother. 

3.  Milton  is  said  [to  live,  to  have  lived]  a  lonesome  life. 

4.  His  captain  expected  him  [to  make,  to  have  made]  a 
touchdown. 


156  VERB   FORMS 

5.  All  the  property  was  [to  be  sold,  to  have  been  sold] 
at  auction,  but  the  sale  was  prevented. 

6.  I  intended  [to  tell,  to  have  told]  him  yesterday. 

7.  I  was  glad  [to  do,  to  have  done]  the  errand  for  you. 

105.  The  infinitive  without  the  sign  to.  After  certain 
verbs,  the  sign  of  the  infinitive  to  is  omitted.  In 
such  cases,  the  infinitive  is  used  in  a  complementary 
or  completing  sense.  Such  an  infinitive  is  called  the 
complementary  infinitive.  Some  of  these  verbs  are: 
hidj  dare,  feel,  let,  make,  may,  need,  please,  see. 

The  following  sentences  contain  illustrations  of 
this  use  of  the  infinitive : 

1.  Let  me  stay  with  you  during  the  storm. 

2.  He  dares  do  all  that  a  man  can  do. 

3.  You  heard  me  say  I   was  coming. 

4.  You  can  lead  a  horse  to  water,  but  you  can  not  make 
him  drink, 

5.  I  saw  you  signal  the  train. 

6.  I  saw  the  film  unfold  slowly. 

106.  The  split  infinitive.  Avoid  separating  the  infini- 
tive and  its  sign. 

Wrong:  He  hopes  to  always  be  ready  when 
he  is  called. 

Right:  He  hopes  always  to  be  ready  when  he 
is  called. 

107.  The  progressive  form.  The  progressive  form  of 
the  verb  is  so  called  because  it  represents  an  action 
in  progress  at  the  time  indicated  by  the  tense.  This 
form  of  the  verb  is  made  according  to  the  scheme 


CONJUGATION  157 

with  which  you  are  familiar;  it  is  formed  by  means  of 
an  auxiliary  plus  a  participle. 

To  form  any  tense  of  the  progressive  active  con- 
jugation, join  the  proper  tense  of  the  verb  be  to  the 
present  participle  of  the  given  verb. 

For  example,  to  form  the  present  active  progres- 
sive form  of  call,  join  the  present  tense  of  he  to  the 
present  participle  of  call,  calling. 

Singular  Plural 

Progressive 

1.  I  am  calling  we  are  calling 

2.  you  are  calling  you  are  calling 

3.  he  is  calling  they  are  calling 

To  form  the  past  tense,  progressive  form  of  call, 
join  the  past  tense  of  he  to  the  present  participle. 
Result,  /  was  calling,  etc. 

To  form  the  present  passive  progressive  form  of 
call,  join  the  proper  tense  of  he  to  the  present  passive 
participle  of  call.  Result,  I  am  heing  called.  The  past 
passive  progressive  is:  I  was  heing  called.  Proceed 
in  the  same  way  to  form  the  other  tenses. 

108.  Conjugation.  You  are  now  ready  for  the  detailed 
definition  of  conjugation,  which  you  have  so  far  kept 
in  mind  as  merely  a  ''convenient  arrangement"  of 
the  forms  of  the  verb. 

Conjugation  is  the  orderly  arrangement  of  the 
verb  forms  according  to  mood,  voice,  tense,  person, 
and  number. 


158 


VERB   FORMS 


Here  is  the  entire  conjugation,  active  and  passive 
forms,  of  the  verbs  call,  see,  and  he,  which  can  be  used 
as  representative  of  all  verbs. 

Indicative  Mood 


ACTIVE   VOICE 


Singular 
r  I  call 
Present  Tense  <  you  call 
[  he  calls 

fl  called 
you  called 
he  called 
fl  shall  call 
you  will  call 
he  will  call 


Perfect  Tense 


Past  Perfect 
Tense 

Future  Perfect 
Tense 


I  have  called 
you  have  called 
he  has  called 
I  had  called 
you  had  called 
he  had  called 

shall  have  called 
you  will  have  called 
[  he  will  have  called 


n 


Plural 
we  call 
you  call 
they  call 
we  called 
you  called 
they  called 
we  shall  call 
you  will  call 
they  will  call 
we  have  called 
you  have  called 
they  have  called 
we  had  called 
you  had  called 
they  had  called 
we  shall  have  called 
you  will  have  called 
they  will  have  called 


The  conjugation  of  call  is  given  as  an  illustration  of  a  regular  verb. 

Subjunctive  Mood 


Present  Tense 


active  voice 

if  I  call  if  we  call 

if  you  call  if  you  call 

if  he  call  if  they  call 


CONJUGATION 


159 


Past  Tense 

Present 
Perfect 
Tense 

Past  Perfect 

Tense 


Singular 
if  I  called 
if  you  called 
if  he  called 

if  I  have  called 
if  you  have  called 
if  he  have  called 

if  I  had  called 
if  you  had  called 
if  he  had  called 


Plural 
if  we  called 
if  you  called 
if  they  called 

if  we  have  called 
if  you  have  called 
if  they  have  called 

if  we  had  called 
if  you  had  called 
if  they  had  called 


Imperative  Mood:  Present  Tense,  Singular  and  Plural:  Call. 
Infinitives:    Present:    To  call;    Present  Perfect:    To  have 

called. 
Participles:    Present:    Calling;    Present  Perfect:    Having 

called. 


Indicative  Mood 


PASSIVE   VOICE 


Singular 

fl  am  called 
you  are  called 
he  is  called 

I  was  called 
you  were  called 
he  was  called 


Past  Tense 


Future  Tense 


Perfect  Tense 


I  shall  be  called 
you  will  be  called 
he  will  be  called 

I  have  been  called 
you  have  been  called 
he  has  been  called 


Plural 
we  are  called 
you  are  called 
they  are  called 

we  were  called 
you  were  called 
they  were  called 

we  shall  be  called 
you  will  be  called 
they  will  be  called 

we  have  been  called 
you  have  been  called 
they  have  been  called 


160 


VERB   FORMS 


Past  Perfect 
Tense 


Future  Perfect 
Tense 


Singular 
I  had  been  called 
you  had  been  called 
he  had  been  called 

I  shall  have  been 

called 
you  will  have  been 

called 
he  will  have  been 

called 


Plural 
we  had  been  called 
you  had  been  called 
they  had  been  called 

we  shall  have  been 

called 
you  will  have  been 

called 
they  will  have  been 

called 


Subjunctive  Mood 


PASSIVE    VOICE 


Present 
Tense 

Past 
Tense 

Present 
Perfect 
Tense 

Past 
Perfect 
Tense 


if  I  be  called 
if  you  be  called 
if  he  be  called 

if  I  were  called 
if  you  were  called 
if  he  were  called 

if  I  have  been  called 
if  you  have  been  called 
if  he  have  been  called 

if  I  had  been  called 
if  you  had  been  called 
if  he  had  been  called 


if  we  be  called 
if  you  be  called 
if  they  be  called 

if  we  were  called 
if  you  were  called 
if  they  were  called 

if  we  have  been  called 
if  you  have  been  called 
if  they  have  been  called 

if  we  had  been  called 
if  you  had  been  called 
if  they  had  been  called 


Imperative  Mood,  Present  Tense,  Singular  and  Plural:   Be 

called. 
Infinitives,  Present:  To  be  called ;  Present  Perfect:  To  have 

been  called. 
Participles,  Present;  Being  called;    Past:  Called;    Prese/d 

Perfect:    Having  been  called. 


CONJUGATION 


161 


Indicative  Mood 


Present  Tense 


Post  Tense 


Future  Tense 


Present  Perfect 
Tense 


Past  Perfect 
Tense 


Future  Perfect 
Tense 


ACTIVE  VOICE 

Singular 

1.  I  see 

2.  you  see 

3.  he  sees 

1.  I  saw 

2.  you  saw 

3.  he  saw 

1.  I  shall  see 

2.  you  will  see 

3.  he  will  see 

1.  I  have  seen 

2.  you  have  seen 

3.  he  has  seen 

1.  I  had  seen 

2.  you  had  seen 

3.  he  had  seen 

1.  I  shall  have  seen 

2.  you  will  have  seen 

3.  he  will  have  seen 


Plural 
we  see 

you  see 
they  see 

we  saw 
you  saw 
they  saw 

we  shall  see 
you  will  see 
they  will  see 

we  have  seen 
you  have  seen 
they  have  seen 

we  had  seen   ' 
you  had  seen 
they  had  seen 

we  shall  have  seen 
you  will  have  seen 
they  will  have  seen 


The  conjugation  of  see  is  given  as  an  illustration  of  the  irregular  verb. 


Presetd  Tense 


Subjunctive  Mood 
active  voice 

1.  if  I  see  if  we  see 

2.  if  you  see  if  you  see 

3.  if  he  see  if  they  see 


162 


VERB   FORMS 


Past  Tense 


Present  Perfect 
Tense 


Past  Perfect 
Tense 


Singular 

1.  if  I  saw 

2.  if  you  saw 

3.  if  he  saw 


Plural 
if  we  saw 
if  you  saw 
if  they  saw 


1.  if  I  have  seen       if  we  have  seen 

2.  if  you  have  seen  if  you  have  seen 

3.  if  he  have  seen     if  they  have  seen 


1.  if  I  had  seen 

2.  if  you  had  seen 

3.  if  he  had  seen 


if  we  had  seen 
if  you  had  seen 
if  they  had  seen 


Imperative  Mood,  Present  Tense,  Singular  and  Plural:  See. 
Infinitives,  Present;  To  see;  Present  Perfect:  To  have  seen. 
Participles,  Present:  Seeing;  Present  Perfect:  Having  seen. 

Indicative  Mood 


PASSIVE  voice 


Present 
Tense 


Past  Tense 


Singular 

1.  I  am  seen 

2.  you  are  seen 

3.  he  is  seen 

1.  I  was  seen 

2.  you  were  seen 

3.  he  was  seen 


Plural 
we  are  seen 
you  are  seen 
they  are  seen 

we  were  seen 
you  were  seen 
they  were  seen 


1 .   I  shall  be  seen      we  shall  be  seen 
Future  Tense  i  2.  you  will  be  seen   you  will  be  seen 
3.  he  will  be  seen      they  will  be  seen 

1 .  I  have  been  seen  we  have  been  seen 

2.  you  have  been      you  have  been  seen 
seen 

3.  he  has  been  seen  they  have  been  seen 


Present 
Perfect 
Tense 


CONJUGATION 


163 


Past  Perfect 
Tense 


Future 
Perfect 
Tense 


Plural 
we  had  been  seen 
you  had  been  seen 


Singular 

1.  I  had  been  seen 

2.  you  had  been 

seen 

3.  he  had  been  seen  they  had  been  seen 

1.  I  shall  have  been  we  shall  have  been  seen 

seen 

2.  you  will  have        you  will  have  been  seen 

been  seen 

3.  he  will  have  they  will  have  been  seen 

been  seen 


Present 
Tense 


Past  Tense 


Present 
Perfect 
Tense 


Past  Perfect 
Tense 


Subjunctive  Mood 
*    passive  voice 

if  I  be  seen  if  we  be  seen 

if  you  be  seen       if  you  be  seen 
if  he  be  seen         if  they  be  seen 
if  I  were  seen        if  we  were  seen 
if  you  were  seen    if  you  were  seen 
if  he  were  seen     if  they  were  seen 
if  I  have  been       if  we  have  been  seen 

seen 
if  you  have  been  if  you  have  been  seen 

seen 

if  they  have  been  seen 


if  he  have  been 

seen 
if  I  had  been 

seen 
if  you  had  been 

seen 
if  he  had  been 

seen 


if  we  had  been  seen 
if  you  had  been  seen 
if  they  had  been  seen 


164 


VERB   FORMS 


Imperative  Mood,  Present  Tense,  Singular  and  Plural:   Be 

seen. 
Infinitives,  Present:   To  be  seen;    Present  Perfect:   To  have 

been  seen. 
Participles,  Present:  Being  seen;  Past:  Seen;  Present  Per^ 

feet:  Having  been  seen. 


CONJUGATION  OF  THE   VERB   TO  BE 
Indicative  Mood 

Plural 


Present 
Tense 


Past  Tense 


Singular 

1.  I  am 

2.  you  are 

3.  he  is 

1.  I  was 

2.  you  were 

3.  he  was 


ri.i 

^2.  vi 


shall  be 
Future  Tense  ^  2.  you  will  be 
[3.~he  willbe 


Present 
Perfect 
Tense 

Past  Perfect 
Tense 

Future 
Perfect 
Tense 


1.  I  have  been 

2.  you  have  been 

3.  he  has  been 

1.  I  had  been 

2.  you  had  been 

3.  he  had  been 

1.  I  shall  have  been 

2.  you  will  have  been 

3.  he  will  have  been 


we  are 
you  are 
they  are 

we  were 
you  were 
they  were 

we  shall  be 
you  will  be 
they  will  be 

we  have  been 
you  have  been 
they  have  been 

we  had  been 
you  had  been 
they  had  been 

we  shall  have  been 
you  will  have  been 
they  will  have  been 


AUXILIARY   VERBS 


165 


Subjunctive  Mood 


Present 
Tense 


Past  Tense 

Present 
Perfect 
Tense 

Past  Perfect 
Tense 


Singular 

1.  if  I  be 

2.  if  you  be 

3.  if  he  be 

1.  if  I  were 

2.  if  you  were 

3.  if  he  were 

1 .  if  I  have  been 

2.  if  you  have  been 

3.  if  he  have  been 

1.  if  I  had  been 

2.  if  you  had  been 

3.  if  he  had  been 


Plural 
if  we  be 
if  you  be 
if  they  be 

if  we  were 
if  you  were 
if  they  were 

if  we  have  been 
if  you  have  been 
if  they  have  been 

if  we  had  been 
if  you  had  been 
if  they  had  been 


Imperative  Mood,  Present,  Singular  and  Plural:   Be. 
Infinitive,  Present:    To  be;   Perfect:  To  have  been. 
Participles,  Present:  Being;    Past:  Been;    Perfect:  Having 
been. 

109.  Auxiliary  verbs.  There  are  certain  English  verbs 
which  are  used  to  help  form  other  verbs  and  to  give 
shades  of  meaning  which  could  not  bo  expressed  with- 
out them.  These  verbs  are  called  auxiliary  verbs; 
they  are  he,  do,  have,  shall,  will,  may,  can,  must,  might, 
could,  would,  and  should.  ^ 

110.  Shall  and  will.  Shall  and  will  are  the  most 
troublesome  of  these  verbs.  In  addition  to  expressing 
simple  future  time,  shall  and  will  may  express  promise, 
determination,  and  command. 


1  B*.  do,  and  have  are  also  used  as  independent  verbs. 


166  VERB  FORMS 

Shall  in  the  first  person  expresses  simple  future 
time.  Promise  is  usually  expressed  only  by  the  first 
person.  Will  is  used  to  express  promise.  Keep  in 
mind  the  difference  between  simple  future  time  and 
promise. 

Study  the  following  sentences : 

(a)  I  shall  be  there  at  three  o'clock. 

This  merely  means  that  in  the  proper  course  of 
future  time  you  will  be  there  at  three. 

(6)  I  will  be  there  at  three  o'clock. 

This  is  a  promise  that  you  will  be  there  at  three. 
Determination  is  also  expressed  in  the  first  person 
by  the  auxiliary  will.     Study  the  following  sentences : 

(a)  I  shall  come  at  three  o'clock.    (Simple  future.) 
(6)  I  will  come  at  three  o'cloclc.     (A  promise.) 
(c)  I  will  come  at  three  o'clock,  if  all  the  world 
forbid  me.     (Determination  to  come.) 

It  is  easy  to  see  the  difference  between  a  simple 
future  use  of  the  auxiliary  and  a  determination  use. 
Simple  future  just  comes  along;  determination  on 
the  part  of  the  speaker  changes  the  future.  In  the 
sentence, 

I  will  accomplish  my  end  in  spite  of  all  obstacles, 

you  see  that  the  speaker  is  determined  to  surmount 
those  obstacles.     In  the  sentence, 

I  shall  die  like  the  rest  of  men, 

the  speaker  is  merely  referring  to  what,  in  the  usual 
course  of  events,  will  happen:  an  occurrence  which, 
probably,  he  will  not  determine  to  hasten. 


SHALL  AND  WILL  167 

Willingness  is  another  shade  of  meaning  expressed 
in  the  first  person  by  mill.     Example: 

Will  you  help  me  out,  please?     Indeed  I  will,  gladly! 

To  sum  up  the  possibilities  of  expression  in  the 
first  person,  by  the  use  of  shall  and  will,  you  have: 

1.  The  expression  of  the  simple  future — shalL 

2.  The  expression  of  promise — vrill. 

3.  The  expression  of  determination — will. 

4.  The  expression  of  willingness — will. 

Will  in  the  second  and  third  persons  expresses  sim- 
ple future  time.  Command  or  determination  is  expressed 
in  the  second  and  third  persons  by  shall.     Examples: 

(a)  You  shall  obey  me. 
(6)  He  shall  do  as  I  say. 

Willingness  is  expressed  by  the  use  of  the  form 
will  in  the  second  and  third  persons.    Examples : 

(a)  Bring  me  that  ink,  if  you  will,  please. 

(6)  He  will  help  me,  then,  in  spite  of  his  objections? 

Promise  is  expressed  by  the  use  of  the  form  shall 
in  the  second  and  third  persons. 

In  tabular  form,  these  facts  are: 

First  person: 

Shall — simple  future. 

Will — promise  and  willingness. 

Will — determination. 

Second  person: 

Will — simple  future. 

Will — willingness  and  command. 

Shall — command  and  promise. 


168  VERB  FORMS 

Third  person: 

Will — simple  future. 
Will — ^willingness. 
Shall — command.- 
Shall — promise. 

You  must  be  careful  to  learn  these  distinctions 
in  the  use  of  shall  and  urill.  A  story  illustrating  what 
might  be  the  sad  consequences  of  neglecting  this 
duty  concerns  a  Frenchman  who  was  having  great 
difficulty  in  mastering  the  troublesome  details  of  our 
language.  It  is  said  that  this  Frenchman  was  boat- 
riding  on  a  lake  with  a  party  of  friends.  The  boat 
was  unfortunately  upset.  In  panic,  the  Frenchman 
cried,  ^'I  mil  drown;  nobody  shall  help  me!''  Since 
he  had  expressed  his  determination  to  drown,  and  had 
forbidden  his  friends  to  aid  him,  they  left  him  to  his 
fate. 

Questic^ns  involving  the  use  of  shall  and  will 
are  expressed  in  the  forms  for  the  simple  future: 

Shall  I  go? 
Will  you  go? 
Will  he  go? 

Never  say.  Will  I  go? 

A  question  which  expects  the  answer  shall  is 
asked  by  shall,  and  one  that  expects  the  answer  will  is 
asked  by  will. 

Shall  you  go? 
Yes,  I  shall. 

Notice  that  if  you  say,  ''Will  you  go  to  the  con- 
cert?" you  are  extending  an  invitation;    if  you  say, 


WOULD  AND   SHOULD  169 

''Shall  you  go  to  the  concert?"  you  are  sunply  asking 
a  question. 

Exercise 

Supply  the  proper  form  of  shall,  or  vrill  in  the 
blanks  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  I go  if  the  weather  permits. 

2.  He  can  help  me  if  he . 

3.  You do  as  I  tell  you. 

4.  "Mar>' not  go  to  that  place,"  said  her  father. 

5.  I check  every  sign  of  opposition  to  my  plan. 

6.  We go  to  church  to-morrow  as  usual. 

7.  You be  at  the  convention,  I  suppose? 

8.  He meet  me  at  Broad  Street,  as  we  planned, 

and  we then  decide  what  to  do  next. 

9.  I come,  I  assure  you. 

10.  Nobody gain  by  your  telling  a  falsehood. 

11.  I read  *' Treasure  Island"  next. 

12.  He never  go  there  again.     It  is  no  place  for 

small  boys. 

13.  I never  get  over  the  shock  of  that  news. 

14.  We telegraph  you  as  soon  as  we  arrive. 

15.  you  take  the  train  or  the  boat? 

16.  he  be  here  in  time  for  the  game? 

17.  I never  cease  to  regret  what  I  did. 

18.  Good-bye!     We see  you  to-morrow  as  usual. 

19.  We not  allow  any  further  trespassing. 

20.  I be  delighted  to  see  you. 

111.  Would  and  should.      Would  expresses  the  past 
of  will  in  the  sense  of  determination : 

*'0h,  well,  he  would  do  it,  against  everyone's  advice, 
and  now  he  is  getting  his  punishment." 


170  VERB  FORMS 

Would  expresses  the  past  of  will  in  the  sense  of 
willingness : 

He  would  do  anything  she  wished. 

Would  sometimes  expresses  an  accustomed  action : 

He  would  go"  there,  night  after  night,  and  stare  at  his 
old  home.     Then,  sadly,  he  would  walk  away. 

Would  sometimes  expresses  a  willingness  that 
depends  on  something  that  was  not  possible: 

He  would  have  gone  if  he  could. 

Would  sometimes  expresses  a  wish: 
I  would  that  I  might  have  my  way! 

The  uses  of  should^  the  past  tense  of  shall^  do  not 
correspond  so  regularly  with  the  uses  of  shall  as  do  the 
uses  of  would  to  the  uses  of  vrill.  Should  is  used  to 
express  a  condition  on  which  something  else  is  made 
to  depend: 

If  he  should  come,  what  will  you  do? 
What  if  more  people  should  come  than  have  written 
acceptances!     We  should  not  have  enough  cakes! 

Should  has  also  acquired  a  definite  use  as  a  word 
expressing  obligation  or  warning: 

(a)  It  matters  not  what  he  wishes  to  do;    there  is 

his  duty,  and  he  should  do  it. 
(6)  You  should  never  pour  hot  water  on  cut  glass. 

There  is  no  absolute  rule  by  which  you  can  govern 
yourself  in  the  use  of  would  and  should,  except  to 
listen  to  those  who  speak  carefully. 


MAY  AND  CAN  171 

There  are  some  definite  things  to  avoid.  For 
instance : 

Wrong:     If  he  would  come,  I  would  speak  to  him. 

This  sentence  is  wrong.     What  the  person  means  is: 

Right:     If  he  comes,  I  shall  speak  to  him. 

Another  use  to  avoid : 

Wrong:  If  he  would  have  been  there,  I  should 
have  been  happy. 

Right:  If  he  had  been  there,  I  should  have  been 
happy. 

Exercise 

Correct  the  wrong  use  of  would  in  the  following 
sentences : 

1.  If  we  would  have  been  fifteen  minutes  later,  we  should 
have  been  killed. 

2.  If  he  would  have  known  the  country,  he  would  have 
acted  as  our  guide. 

3.  If  I  would  have  brought  this  book  before,  I  should 
have  saved  myself  much  trouble. 

4.  If  he  would  have  driven  the  machine  carefully,  the 
accident  would  not  have  happened. 

112.  May   and    can.      May   and  can  are  frequently 
confused.  . 

May  carries  the  idea  of  permission  or  possibility. 

Permission:     May  I  go  to  the  theater? 
Possibility:     Do  not  wait  for  Charles;    he  may 
come,  but  I  doubt  it. 


172  VERB   FORMS 

Can  carries  the  idea  of  power  or  ability. 

Wrong:     Can  I  go  to  the  theater? 
Right:    The   Government   of  the   United   States 
can  pay  all  its  debts. 

113.  Using  the  participle.  You  have  learned  the 
forms  of  the  participle,  and  you  have  learned  one  of 
its  uses;  namely,  to  help  form  the  tenses  of  the  pro- 
gressive and  passive  forms  of  the  verb.  To  determine 
one  of  the  other  uses  of  the  participle,  study  this 
sentence : 

Mary,  carrying  the  pitcher  to  the  well,  spilled  the 
water. 

What  does  the  present  participle  carrying  do 
in  the  sentence?  You  see  at  once  the  verbal  force 
in  carrying,  for  it  expresses  action  received  by  the. 
noun  pitcher,  which  is,  therefore,  the  direct  object 
of  carrying.  But  in  section  89,  you  saw  that  the 
participle  is  never  used  as  an  independent  asserter 
of  action,  as  the  tenses  of  the  verb  are.  The  participle, 
even  though  it  expresses  action,  is  always  dependent 
on  some  other  word  in  the  sentence.  Carrying  here 
describes  Mary.  She  is  a  carrying  Mary.  The  rela- 
tion which  carrying  bears  to  Mary  is  the  relation  of  the 
adjective  to  its  noun.  The  participle,  while  retaining 
the  power  of  the  verb  to  express  action  and  to  govern 
a  noun  as  object,  shares  also  the  nature  of  the  adjective. 
Its  duty,  then,  is  two-fold. 

Select  the  participles  used  as  adjectives  in  the 
following  sentences.  Tell  what  word  each  participle 
modifies  and  what  noun,  if  any,  it  governs. 


THE   PARTICIPLE  173 

1.  The  beach,  having  been  swept  by  the  storm,  was 
bleak  and  desolate. 

2.  Edith,  crying  as  hard  as  she  could,  was  returned  to 
her  anxious  parents. 

3.  He  repaired  the  boat,  battered  by  the  flood,  so 
that  it  was  as  good  as  new. 

4.  The    speaker   stood    before    the    audience,    vainly 
struggling  for  control. 

5.  Knowing  that  he  must  win  the  battle,  the  general 
stuck  valiantly  to  his  position. 

6.  Having  expressed  his  confidence  in  me,  the  chief 
sent  me  on  the  dangerous  mission. 

7.  He  sent  the  telegram,  hoping  against  hope  that  it 
would  reach  me. 

8.  Waving   the   red   shirt   wildly   across   the   tracks, 
James  succeeded  in  his  effort  to  stop  the  train. 

9.  Making    a    last    desperate    attempt,    the    soldier 
crawled  once  more  to  the  edge  of  the  embankment. 

10.  Wishing  to  accomplish  my  aim,  I  sat  patiently 
and  waited  until  all  the  others  had  interviewed  the  great  man. 

11.  The  boy  stood  at  the  window,  looking  wistfully 
across  the  fields. 

Some  participles  have  been  used  as  adjectives  so 
much  that  the  idea  of  action  has  been  wholly  lost. 
In  these  cases  the  word  is  counted  a  mere  adjective, 
and  is  so  treated.     Examples  are: 

1.  No  place  under  the  shining  sun  is  so  pretty. 

2.  The  bending  boughs  made  an  arch  across  the  roadway. 

3.  Tom  bits  of  paper  were  strewn  on  the  floor. 

4.  The  fluttering  leaves  danced  in  the  wind. 

114.  The  dangling  participle.     The  participle  used  as 
an  adjective  must  adhere  to  the  rules  governing  the 


174       ,  •  VERB   FORMS 

use  of  the  adjective.  It  must  modify  some  noun  or 
pronoun  in  the  sentence,  and  bear  the  adjective 
relation  to  the  noun  or  pronoun  modified.  The  use 
of  a  participle  without  this  relationship  is  a  serious 
error. 

Here  is  an  example  of  this  error: 

Wrong:  After  hurriedly  eating  my  supper,  my 
automobile  was  found  to  be  out  of  commission. 

Did  my  automobile  eat  my  supper? 

Right:  After  hurriedly  eating  my  supper,  I  found 
that  my  automobile  was  out  of  commission. 

In  the  sentence  marked  ^ 'Wrong' ^  you  see  that 
eating  does  not  bear  the  relationship  of  an  adjective 
to  any  word  in  the  sentence.  In  fact,  eating  is  dangling 
at  loose  ends  in  this  sentence.  A  participle  so  care- 
lessly used  is  called  a  dangling  participle.  You  should 
carefully  avoid  such  mistakes  by  doing  one  of  two 
things : 

1.  Make  the  participle  bear  the  relationship  of 
the  adjective  to  a  noun  in  the  sentence. 

2.  Expand  the  participial  phrase  into  a  clause. 

Here  is  a  sentence  which,  corrected  by  method  1, 
would  read: 

Wrong:  Rowing  down  the  river,  a  wonderful 
scene  unfolded  before  us. 

Right:  Rowing  down  the  river,  we  saw  a  wonderful 
scene  unfold  before  us. 


THE   PARTICIPLE  175 

If  you  correct  this  sentence  according  to  method  2, 
you  have: 

Right:  As  we  rowed  down  the  river,  we  saw  a 
wonderful  scene  unfold  before  us. 

Exercise 

Correct  the  sentences  in  the  following  exercise: 

1.  Standing  by  the  elevator,  a  girl  came  up  to  me 
and  said,  "  You  are  needed  at  once/' 

2.  Supposing  that  all  was  well,  the  flag  was  waved 
by  the  brakeman  as  a  signal  to  go  ahead. 

3.  Having  procured  a  luncheon,  the  train  carried  us 
toward  the  picnic  grounds. 

d.  Not  understanding  the  conditions,  mistakes  were 
made  by  us  which  we  regretted  very  much. 

5.  Feeling  dreadfully  puzzled,  the  directions  were  not 
clear  to  Alice. 

6.  There  we  landed,  and,  having  eaten  our  lunch, 
the  steamer  departed. 

7.  I  saw  a  few  hats  that  I  liked  on  the  counter,  and 
after  trying  some  of  them  on,  the  saleswoman  brought  still 
more  from  the  drawers. 

8.  Walking  down  in  the  sun,  the  day  seemed  lovely. 

9.  On  asking  George,  he  said  he  did  not  know. 

10.  Not  being  a  clear  day,  we  could  not  see  the  harbor. 

11.  Digging  a  few  feet  down,  bones  were  discovered 
by  the  laborers. 

12.  Giving  the  girl  our  tickets,  she  showed  us  our  seats. 

13.  After  long  wondering  what  my  fate  was  to  be,  my 
cell  was  opened. 

14.  Being  overcome  by  the  gas,  we  carried  him  out. 

15.  Looking  at  it  from  our  height,  it  made  a  pretty 
picture. 


176  VERB  FORMS 

16.  Strolling  through  the  woods,  my  attention  was 
attracted  by  a  strange  noise. 

17.  After  crying  and  begging,  we  allowed  the  child  to  go. 

18.  Having  lost  my  book,  my  card  was  retained  by  the 
librarian. 

19.  Waiting  for  the  elevator,  my  feet  grew  very  tired. 

20.  Leaving  everything,   the  train  was  held  for  me, 
and  I  just  caught  it. 

115.  The  gerund.  There  is  another  dependent  part 
of  the  verb,  called  the  gerund.  The  forms  of  the 
gerund  are  exactly  like  those  of  the  present  and  perfect 
participles.  The  duties  of  the  gerund  and  the  parti- 
ciple, however,  are  different.  The  participle  is  used 
like  an  adjective;  the  gerund  is  used  like  a  noun. 
The  gerund  retains  its  verbal  character  in  that  it  may 
govern  the  case  of  nouns.  For  the  verb  call,  the  forms 
of  the  gerund  are  as  follows: 

Active  Passive 

Present   calling  being  called 

Perfect    haviag  called  having  been  called 

The  following  sentences  illustrate  the  use  of  the 
gerund : 

(a)  Swimming  is  good  exercise. 

(h)  Seeing  is  believing. 

(c)   He  believes  in  making  hay  while  the  sun  shines. 


Xm.    PUNCTUATION 

116,  What  punctuation  is.  In  sections  2,  3,  and  4 
are  explained  three  marks  which  are  used  at  the  ends 
of  sentences  in  order  to  show  at  once  just  how  the 
writer  wishes  the  sentence  to  be  understood.  What 
are  these  marks  called? 

There  are  other  marks  which  help  you  to  under- 
stand sentences.  If  it  were  not  for  these  marks,  you 
would  have  to  spend  much  time  in  puzzling  out  what 
the  sentences  mean.    Read,  for  instance,  this  sentence: 

They  are  beautiful  little  things  said  Ivan  lifting  his  cap 
and  as  the  footman  turned  away  he  uttered  his  few  Russian 
words  once  more  and  moved  off  without  even  glancing  at 
the  lady. 

You  are  compelled  to  read  this  sentence  three 
or  four  times  to  see  what  it  means.  Repeated  readings 
are  a  waste  of  time.  Besides  learning  marks  for  the 
ends  of  sentences,  then,  you  must  also  learn  marks 
with  which  to  separate  the  various  parts  of  long 
sentences — ^parts  that  could  hardly  be  understood 
without  these  marks.  All  such  marks  make  the  reader 
stop  for  a  second  in  order  to  understand  what  he 
has  just  read.  The  marks  are  used  to  replace  the  sound 
of  the  voice — to  tell  the  eye  what  the  ear  gets  from 
inflections,  pauses,  etc.  when  people  talk  to  us. 

To  separate  sentences  from  each  other  by  marks, 
and  to  separate  parts  of  sentences  from  other  parts 

12  (177) 


178  PUNCTUATION 

by  marks,  is  to  punctuate  those  sentences.      Such 

marks,  therefore,  are  called  punctuation  marks. 

117.  Quotation  marks.  To  repeat  what  some  other 
person  has  said  is  to  quote  that  person.  The  expres- 
sion quoted  is  referred  to  as  a  quotation.  If  it  repeats 
the  exact  words  of  the  person,  it  is  a  direct  quotation; 
if  it  repeats  the  thought  not  in  the  exact  words,  it  is 
not  a  direct  quotation.     Examples : 

Direct:   He  said,  '^I  will  do  my  best.^' 

Not  direct :^    He  said  that  he  would  do  his  best. 

118.  The  exact  words  of  a  speaker  are  enclosed  in 
quotation  marks  ("  "). 

By  reading  the  following  passage,  printed  first 
without  the  marks  and  then  with  them,  you  will  at 
once  see  the  advantage  of  using  them. 

Mary,  why,  Mary!  he  cried,  I  was  just  talking  about 
you.  I  was  just  telling  Prescott  that  you  must  come.  Why 
wasn't  I  allowed  to  come  and  get  you?  His  face  had  fallen 
into  graver,  older  lines.  There  was  stern  reproach  in  his 
eyes.     Mary,  answer  me,  he  commanded.     Mary! 

*'  Mary,  why,  Mary ! "  he  cried,  ''  I  was  just  talking  about 
you.  I  was  just  telling  Prescott  that  you  must  come.  Why 
wasn't  I  allowed  to  come  and  get  you?"  His  face  had  fallen 
into  graver,  older  lines.  There  was  stern  reproach  in  his 
eyes.     ''Mary,  answer  me,"  he  commanded.     "Mary!" 

Exercise 

Place  quotation  marks  correctly  in  the  following 
sentences: 

1.  But  why  have  you  such  a  big  mouth.  Grandmother, 
asked  Red  Riding  Hood. 


QUOTATION   MARKS  179 

2.  Nelson  said,  England  expects  every  man  to  do  his 
duty. 

3.  The  men  were  told  that  they  would  be  treated  justly. 

4.  The  commander  said,  Men,  while  you  are  in  this 
service,  you  will  be  treated  justly. 

5.  The  professor  said  that  no  student  would  be  excused 
from  examination. 

A  quotation  interrupted  by  said  he  or  asked  he 
requires  a  set  of  quotation  marks  for  each  part  of  the 
quotation.     For  instance: 

Right:  ''I  shall  not  go/'  said  he,  ^'unless  you  go 
along.'' 

Exercise 

Place  quotation  marks  correctly  in  the  following 
sentences : 

1.  I  do  not  know,  said  the  librarian,  whether  I  can 
remit  this  fine  or  not. 

2.  I  thought,  remarked  Adelaide,  that  unused  railway 
tickets  were  redeemable. 

3.  May  I  go,  too,  asked  Eddie,  eagerly;  may  I, 
Mother? 

4.  There  is  no  reason,  said  the  physician,  gravely,  why 
you  should  take  such  an  attitude.     I  can  not  approve  of  it. 

119.  K  the  quotation  is  made  up  of  several  sentences, 
without  interruption,  only  the  quotation  marks  before 
the  first  sentence  and  after  the  last  are  needed. 

120.  Sometimes  quoted  conversation,  besides  being  a 
quotation  itself,  includes  a  quotation.  Such  an  included 
quotation  is  called  a   quotation    within   a  quotation^ 


180  PUNCTUATION     . 

and  is  marked  with  single  instead  of  double  quota- 
tion marks.     For  instance : 

'' Remember,  men,"  said  the  general,  ''that  we  look 
to  you  for  courage  and  bravery.  Nelson  said,  'England 
expects  every  man  to  do  his  duty.'  That  was  long  ago,  but 
England  expects  the  same  response  now  that  she  obtained 
then." 

Exercise 

Place  quotation  marks  correctly  in  the  following 
sentences : 

1.  My  grandmother  used  to  tell  me,  said  Jameson,  a 
great  many  useful  things.  One  of  her  favorite  sayings  was, 
Many  words  darken  speech. 

2.  Well,  continued  John,  the  fact  that  the  house  was 
dark  was  not  the  only  terrifying  factor  in  the  situation. 
The  wind  sighed  and  howled,  and  sometimes  a  voice  seemed 
to  cry  I'm  coming!     I'm  coming! 

3.  The  only  thing  I  object  to,  said  Charles,  is  that 
these  people  who  are  always  crying  out  Do  your  duty!  are 
always  the  last  ones  to  do  theirs. 

4.  No  matter  what  you  try  to  tell  the  man,  objected 
Timothy,  he  interrupts  you  with  that  eternal,  I  say!  Oh, 
I  say! 

121.  Titles  of  books,  magazines,  and  papers  are 
enclosed  in  quotation  marks  when  italics  are  not  used, 
or  when  the  titles  are  not  underlined.     Example: 

Right:     Kipling's  Kim  is  an  interesting  bopk. 
Right:     Kipling's  "Kim"  is  an  interesting  book. 

In  writing  a  quoted  conversation,  be  careful  to 


THE  HYPHEN  181 

begin  each  person's  conversation  on  a  new  line  indented 
as  for  the  beginning  of  a  new  paragraph. 

Wrong:  ''1  can't  do  it,"  cried  Mary.  ''Oh,  yes, 
you  can.     Try  harder!"  replied  John. 

Right:  "I  can't  do  it,"  cried  Mary,  as  she  tugged 
vainly  to  get  the  engine  started. 

"Oh,  yes,  you  can.     Try  harder!"  repUed  John. 

122.  The  hyphen.  The  word  man  cannot  be  broken 
apart.  It  has  to  be  pronounced  at  one  effort  of  the 
vocal  organs.  The  word  republic^  however,  falls  into 
three  distinct  parts  when  you  pronounce  it  slowly. 
Re  can  be  said  with  one  effort;  pub  with  another, 
and  lie  with  a  third.  Those  letters  of  a  word  which 
can  easily  be  pronounced  together  are  called  a  syllable. 
There  are  two  reasons  why  it  is  important  for  you  to 
learn  the  syllables  of  a  word.  First,  to  know  the 
syllables  is  a  help  in  learning  to  spell  and  pronounce; 
second,  it  is  important  to  know  how  to  divide  a  word 
into  its  proper  syllables  in  order  to  be  able  to  write 
correctly  words  which  have  to  be  broken  at  the  ends 
of  lines  on  account  of  lack  of  room.  Such  a  division 
should  always  be  made  at  the  end  of  a  syllable. 

When  a  word  is  divided  at  the  end  of  a  line  the 
hyphen  (-)  is  used  at  the  end  of  a  syllable,  thus: 

react- 
ing 

The  hyphen  indicates  that  part  of  the  word  is 
coming  on  the  next  line.  Never  break  a  word  of  one 
syllable,  like  brought  or  which. 


182  PUNCTUATION 

Exercise 

Break  the  following  words  at  the  end  of  some 
syllable  as  if  they  were  written  at  the  end  of  a  line, 
and  place  the  hyphen  after  the  syllable : 

knowing  carpet  nonsense 

overslept  basket  capital 

Words  made  up  of  two  parts  are  compound  words. 
Until  such  words  have  been  used  together  so  long 
that  they  have  come  to  be  considered  a  single  word, 
the  two  parts  are  separated  by  a  hyphen.  Freckle- 
faced  and  curly-headed  are  examples.  On  the  other 
hand,  workman  and  horseshoe  have  become  single 
words.  If  you  are  in  doubt  as  to  whether  or  not  a 
word  has  dropped  the  hyphen,  look  the  word  up  in 
the  most  recent  dictionary  at  your  command. 

123.  The  comma.  Perhaps  the  most  important  mark 
which  indicates  a  pause  inside  the  sentence  is  the 
comma  (,). 

The  problem  of  the  proper  use  of  the  comma  is 
a  simple  one  if  you  keep  in  mind  one  rule:  use  your 
common  sense.  Some  sentences  are  short;  some 
groups  of  words  are  so  closely  related,  that  it  is  not 
necessary  or  wise  to  separate  them  by  commas.  In 
the  sentence,  John  went  home,  for  example,  you  would 
not  be  using  good  sense  to  separate  John  from  went  by 
a  comma. 

Mary  came  when  her  mother  called  her. 

Here,  again,  no  pause  is  necessary  between  came 
and  when. 


THE  COMMA  183 

The  following  specific  uses  of  the  comma  will 
guide  you  in  using  it: 

124.  To  mark  the  omission  of  words.     Example: 

To  his  enemies  he  was  merciless;  to  his  friends,  gentle. 
If  we  wrote  out  the  second  clause  it  would  read, 
To  his  friends  he  was  gentle. 

125.  To  separate  words  in  apposition  from  the  rest 
of  the  sentence  when  these  words  are  out  of  the  natural 
order.     Example : 

Mary,  my  sister,  received  the  first  prize  in  drawing. 

In  the  sentence,  My  sister  Mary  received  the 
prize,  you  would  not  need  the  comma.  That  is 
why  the  rule  directs  us  to  use  it  only  when  the  words 
are  out  of  their  natural  order. 

126.  To  separate  expressions  of  direct  address  from 
the  rest  of  the  sentence.     Examples : 

(a)  William,  please  answer  the  telephone. 

(6)  I  do  not  know,  Anna,  who  took  yom*  paint-box. 

127.  To  separate  contrasted  words  or  groups  of 
words  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence.     Example : 

Acts,  not  words,  count. 

128.  To  separate  parenthetical  expressions  from  the 
rest  of  the  sentence.     Examples : 

(a)  This  man,  as  we  all  know,  is  a  great  leader  of 

the  movement  for  honest  elections. 
(6)  Yes,  indeed,  I  know  him  well. 


184  PUNCTUATION 

129.  To  separate  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence 
quotations  not  formally  introduced.  (See  Section  141.) 
Examples : 

(a)  Someone  shouted,  "There's  the  president!" 
(6)   ''This/'  said  the  salesman,  *'is  the  best  machine 
on  the  market. " 

130.  Three  or  more  words  used  in  a  series  should 
be  set  off  by  commas. 

The  best  usage  requires  a  comma  before  the  and 
connecting  the  last  two  words  used  in  a  series. 
Examples : 

(a)  Our  flag  is  red,  white,  and  blue. 
(6)  He  was  a  strong  man,  steady,  conscientious,  and 
resourceful. 

131.  When  a  dependent  clause  goes  before  the 
main  clause,  it  is  separated  from  the  main  clause  by 
a  comma.     Examples : 

(a)  If  he  goes,  I  shall  not  go. 
(h)  If  you  do  that  again,  I  shall  punish  you. 
(c)   When  the  train  comes  in,  you  hurry  on  board 
as  fast  as  you  can. 

132.  Introductory  phrases  and  words  should  be 
separated  from  the  main  statement  by  a  comma. 
Examples : 

(a)  After  chopping  the  wood,  Ralph  laid  it  in  piles. 
(6)  Besides,  it  is  poor  policy. 

These  rules  do  not  cover  all  of  the  possible  uses 
of  the  comma.      Your  own  judgment  must  be  con- 


THE   COMMA  185 

suited  oftener  about  the  use  of  this  mark  than  about 
any  other.  Even  if  none  of  the  rules  given  above 
applies,  a  comma  should  be  used  when  it  will  make  the 
meaning  of  a  sentence  clearer. 

133.  The  comma  blunder.  The  comma  should  not 
be  used  between  the  clauses  of  a  compound  sentence 
when  they  are  not  connected  by  a  pure  conjimction. 

The  use  of  a  comma  between  such  clauses  is  known  as 
the  comma  blunder  or  the  comma  fault. 

Wrong:  The  engineer  put  on  full  steam,  the 
train  started  with  a  jerk. 

Right:  The  engineer  put  on  full  steam;  the  train 
started  with  a  jerk. 

Right:  The  engineer  put  on  full  steam.  The 
train  started  with  a  jerk.     (See  section  137.) 

Exercise 

Place  commas  where  you  consider  them  necessary 
in  the  following  sentences.  Give  your  reasons  for 
inserting  the  commas. 

1.  He  produced  an  ivory  tube  through  which  one 
could  look  and  by  simply  wishing  see  anything  in  the  world 
or  out  of  it. 

2.  Immediately  without  arguing  the  waiter  made  the 
change  in  our  order. 

3.  When  the  Pjince  returned  to  the  palace  his  two 
Irothers  were  there  awaiting  him. 

4.  "Well  may  be  they  did"  I  said  ''but  I  think  the 
Brownies  in  this  case  were  the  men  who  helped  chop  down 
the  trees." 


186  PUNCTUATION 

5.  These  are  methods  adopted  by  men  whose  business 
it  is  to  grow  trees. 

6.  If  you  will  take  this  to  Henry  White  my  uncle  I 
shall  be  very  much  obliged. 

7.  To  those  who  tried  he  was  gentle;  to  those  who  were 
lazy  pitiless. 

8.  Who  has  not  heard  of  Daniel  Boone  the  great 
pioneer? 

9.  Fred  please  come  here. 

10.  Once  in  a  rough  wild  country 
On  the  other  side  of  the  sea 
There  lived  a  dear  little  fairy 
And  her  home  was  in  a  tree; 
A  d^ar  httle  queer  little  fairy 
And  as  rich  as  she  could  be. 

11.  It  was  queer  enough  to  be  sure  to  hear  this  rosy- 
cheeked  little  fellow  talk  about  the  government  of  his 
country  and  what  he  would  do  when  he  was  a  man. 

12.  Men  women  and  children  flocked  to  hear  him. 

13.  We  need  a  net  two  rackets  two  balls  and  some 
lime. 

14.  When  Abraham  Lincoln  was  twenty-one  the  whole 
family  started  for  Illinois. 

15.  I  had  made  the  acquaintance  of  Mr.  Raymond 
some  time  before  and  was  walking  up  the  drive  to  call  on 
him  when  I  first  met  Diamond. 

16.  Tom  was  at  the  works  very  early  the  next  morning; 
early  enough  indeed  to  be  alone  with  Wilkins  the  foreman  ct 
the  laboratories. 

17.  Here  a  watering-pot  lay  on  the  grass;  there  a 
deserted  spade;  yonder  a  white  apron  hurriedly  cast  aside 
by  an  embarrassed  rnaiden. 

18.  Mary  stopped  looked  Hstened  and  held  up  a 
warning  hand. 


THE   PERIOD  187 

19.  Not  wishing  to  interrupt  William  stood  aside  and 
waited. 

20.  The  sun  even  as  we  looked  sank  below  the  western 
horizon. 

21.  He  would  carr>'  a  fowling  piece  on  his  shoulder  for 
hours  together  trudging  through  woods  and  swamps  and  up 
hill  and  down  dale  to  shoot  a  few  squirrels. 

22.  Maud  cried  ''Help!" 

23.  As  she  was  passing  through  the  doorway  she  felt 
a  drop  of  rain  upon  her  face.  "Oh  mother"  she  cried  "Put 
down  the  windows!" 

24.  Father  promised  us  a  tennis  court  this  summer  but 
it  has  rained  so  constantly  that  he  has  not  been  able  to 
keep  his  promise. 

134.  The  period.     The  period   (  .  )   is  used  to  show 
finality  or  completeness. 

135.  The  period  (  .  )  should  be  used  after  declara- 
tive and  imperative  sentences. 

Proper  use  of  the  period  requires  a  clear  under- 
standing of  what  makes  a  sentence. 

Here  are  examples  of  complete  and  incomplete 
thoughts.  Read  them  aloud  over  and  over.  Try  to 
develop  the  ability  to  tell  instantly  whether  or  not  a 
group  of  words  expresses  a  thought  completely. 

Incomplete:     On  Sunday 

On  Sunday  does  not  express  a  thought  completely. 
These  words  should  not  stand  alone  as  if  they  were 
a  sentence. 

Complete:     I  went  walking  on  Sunday. 

Incomplete:     If  you  had  not 

//  you  had  not  does  not  express  a  thought  com- 


188  PUNCTUATION 

pletely.      These  words  should  not  stand  alone  as  if 
they  were  a  sentence. 

Complete:  I  would  not  have  come  if  you  had  not 
called. 

Exercise 

Read  each  of  the  following  groups  of  words; 
tell  whether  each  is  a  sentence  or  not,  and  place 
periods  where  they  are  needed. 

1.  The  only  objection  I  have  to  football  is  that  the 
game  is  too  rough 

2.  Moreover  there  was  not  a  single  boy  there  who 
although  over  sixteen  years  of  age 

3.  One  needs  steady  nerves  to  kick  a  goal  when  the 
score  is  a  tie 

4.  The  Liberty  Bell  which  is  a  relic  of  Revolutionary 
days  and  which  now  rests  in  Independence  Hall,  Philadelphia 

5.  Mrs.  Payton  was  so  astounded  when  her  mother 
suddenly  came  into  the  room 

6.  As  soon  as  I  could,  I  took  the  book  up  to  my  room 

7.  Abraham  Lincoln  was  called  a  rail-splitter.    Because 
he  split  rails  for  a  living.     Once  in  his  boyhood 

8.  I  found  this  paper.     On  the  cellar  shelf 

9.  I  have  received  reliable  information  that 

10.  After  half  an  hour  Gallegher  slipped  down  to  the 
bottom  of  the  cab  and  dragged  out  a  lap-robe 

11.  ''I  am  Mr.  Dwyer,  of  the  Press,''  said  the  sporting 
editor  briskly 

12.  But  his  fear  was  overcome  when  out  from  his  hiding 
place  with  a  yell  and  a  bound 

13.  Gallegher  leaped  up  on  the  box,  pulhng  out  the 
whip  as  he  did  so,  and  with  a  quick  sweep  lashed  the  horse 
across  the  back 

14.  They  found  evidence  of  a  crime.     In  the  safe 


THE  PERIOD  189 

Go  over  this  exercise  again,  making  complete 
all  the  incomplete  groups  of  words. 

Keeping  in  mind  what  you  have  learned  about  the 
period,  study  the  following  sentence: 

I  did  not  hear  a  word  the  minister  said,  I  was  dreaming. 

You  learned  in  section  133  that  you  cannot  use  a 
comma  between  the  parts  of  a  compound  sentence 
unless  they  are  connected  by  a  pure  conjunction.  The 
meaning  you  wish  to  give  in  such  cases  will  determine 
your  punctuation.  As  you  will  learn  when  you  study 
the  semicolon,  you  can  indicate  relationship  of  thought 
in  certain  cases  by  placing  a  semicolon  between  the 
independent  clauses.  You  will  always  be  safe,  how- 
ever, if  you  make  separate  sentences  using  the  period, 
thus: 


mg. 


I  did  not  hear  a  word  the  minister  said.     I  was  dream- 

Another  error  may  trouble  you.     For  example: 
Where  is  he,  I  cannot  find  him. 

Here,  instead  of  finding  the  comma  used  instead 
of  the  period,  you  find  it  used  to  replace  the  question 
mark.  This  also  has  the  effect  of  putting  unrelated 
thoughts  into  one  sentence. 

Right:    Where  is  he?     I  cannot  find  him. 

136.  The  period  is  always   used  after  an  abbrevia-' 
tion.     Examples : 

Jr.,  Dr.,  R.  S.  V.  P.,  etc.,  f.  o.  b. 


190  PUNCTUATION 

The  period  is  always  used  after  an  initial.  Exam- 
ple: 

Mr.  J.  M.  Smith. 

137.  The  semicolon.  The  semicolon  (;)  is  used  to 
separate  the  clauses  of  a  compoimd  sentence  when 
these  clauses  are  not  closely  connected  in  thought, 
or  when  the  second  clause  is  introduced  by  a  con- 
junctive adverb.     Examples: 

He  waited  in  breathless  silence;  the  stealthy  footsteps 
came  nearer  and  nearer. 

The  boy  flushed  and  stammered;  then  he  came  around 
to  Winifred's  seat,  bringing  the  book. 

A  writer  who  desires  to  secure  the  effect  of  con- 
trast may  use  the  semicolon  between  the  clauses  of  a 
compound  sentence  when  these  clauses  are  connected 
by  a  pure  conjunction .     Example : 

There  is  often  a  threatening  note  in  the  voice  of  bells; 
but  these,  as  they  sounded  abroad,  were  quiet  and  tunable, 
and  seemed  to  fall  in  with  the  spirit  of  rustic  places. 

Exercise 

Place  semicolons  properly  in  the  following  sen- 
tences : 

1.  I  was  not  invited  so  I  did  not  go. 

2.  It  was  too  cold  to  sleep  out  of  doors  therefore  we 
went  into  the  tent. 

3.  The  children  have  been  dismissed  from  school  hence 
the  noise  in  the  street  has  increased. 

4.  He  complained  for  an  hour  about  going^however, 
he  went. 


THE  SEMICOLON  lyl 

5.  Motorists  constantly  violated  the  speed  laws  still 
the  residents  made  no  complaint. 

6.  There  was  not  room  for  a  single  additional  passenger 
in  the  car  nevertheless  three  men  squeezed  in. 

7.  Doctor  Conwell  made  a  few  introductory  remarks 
then  Mr.  Taft  began  his  speech. 

8.  The  checked  suit  is  too  big  besides  I  do  not  like  it. 

9.  Poor  Rip  was  reduced  almost  to  despair  his  only 
alternative  to  escape  was  to  take  gun  in  hand  and  stroll 
into  the  woods. 

10.  The  day  was  at  an  end  shadow  and  silence  possessed 
the  valley. 

11.  I  will  not  lie  to  gain  my  ends  neither  will  I  be  dis- 
honest. 

You  will  heed  to  distinguish  between  a  clause 
introduced  by  a  conjunctive  adverb  and  a  clause 
introduced  by  a  subordinating  conjunction.  The 
clause  introduced  by  the  conjunctive  adverb  is  inde- 
pendent and  could  be  written  in  a  separate  sentence. 
The  clause  introduced  by  the  subordinating  conjunc- 
tion is  dependent  and  could  not  be  written  as  a  separate 
sentence.  This  distinction  is  important  because 
clauses  introduced  by  a  conjunctive  adverb  may  be 
separated  from  the  preceding  clauses  by  a  semicolon. 
Clauses  introduced  by  a  subordinating  conjunction 
may  not  be  separated  from  the  main  clause  by  a  semi- 
colon; they  must  be  separated,  as  you  know,  by  a 
comma. 

Wrong:  He  knew  me  at  once;  when  I  crossed  the 
street. 

Right:  He  knew  me  at  once,  when  I  crossed  the 
street. 


192  PUNCTUATION 

'  Exercise 

Correct  the  following  sentences: 

1.  No  one  ever  saw  her  skate;  although  she  talked 
constantly  of  her  skating. 

2.  I  shall  go  now;  if  I  have  your  permission. 

3.  He  put  away  his  camping  outfit  in  the  tent;  while 
Bert  unpacked  his  kitchen  kit. 

4.  It  is  useless  for  you  to  come  here;  unless  you  are 
willing  to  work. 

5.  I  have  known  him  from  the  days  of  my  extreme 
youth;  because  he  made  my  father's  boots. 

6.  I  did  not  attend  that  school  in  the  fall;  although 
I  had  been  promoted. 

7.  I  was  thinking  this,  and  looking  at  my  wife's 
troubled  face;   when  our  new  uncle  tapped  me  on  the  arm. 

8.  She  arrived  one  morning  shortly  after  breakfast; 
as  we  were  preparing  to  go  for  a  drive. 

9.  Uncle  David  looked  at  her  without  a  sign  of  recog- 
nition, and  went  on  out  into  the  hall;  where  he  got  his  hat 
and  gloves. 

10.  Until  the  sound  of  the  footsteps  died  away,  Larry 
stood  absolutely  rigid;  while  my  wife  and  I  gazed  at  him 
spellbound. 

You  have  seen  that  the  semicolon  should  not  be 
used  between  a  main  clause  and  a  subordinate  clause 
that  follows  the  main  clause.  You  should  avoid  the 
opposite  error  of  using  a  comma  between  two  inde- 
pendent clauses  when  one  of  them  is  introduced  by  a 
conjunctive  adverb.  This  is  another  form  of  the 
comma  blunder.     Examples: 

Wrong:  I  was  sitting  in  a  draught,  hence  I  caught 
cold. 


THE  SEMICOLON  193! 

Right:  I  was  sitting  in  a  draught ;  hence  I  caught 
cold. 

Wrong:  The  man  showed  no  signs  of  rebeUing, 
nevertheless  the  officer  handcuffed  him. 

Right:  The  man  showed  no  signs  of  rebelling; 
nevertheless,  the  officer  handcuffed  him. 

Exercise 

Correct  the  following  sentences: 

1.  She  looked  up  and  returned  his  salutation  with 
dignity,  then  she  went  on  with  her  work. 

2.  Mary  was  going  abroad,  so  each  of  us  sent  her  a 
steamer  letter. 

3.  He  must  have  passed  a  civil  service  examination, 
otherwise  how  could  he  have  secured  the  position? 

4.  No  one  took  any  care  of  it,  therefore  the  whole 
place  went  to  rack  and  ruin. 

5.  Both  rear  tires  were  punctured,   hence  we  were 
delayed  on  the  road. 

6.  Booth  had  a  splendid  reputation,  nevertheless  the 
editor  refused  to  hire  him. 

7.  The  mob  made  for  the  jail   doors,   then  pande- 
monium reigned. 

8.  We  promised  him  our  protection,  indeed  we  prom- 
ised him  safety. 

9.  We  made  the  best  speed  we  could,  still  we  were 
miles  from  home. 

10.  Burson  went,  yet  he  went  so  unwillingly  that  we 
had  to  smile. 

138.  The  semicolon    is    used    before    namely^  e.  g.y 
viz.y    and    i.  e.,    when    these    expressions    introduce 


194  PUNCTUATION 

examples  of  statements  made  in  the  foregoing  part 
of  the  sentence.  These  words  or  abbreviations  are 
all  equivalent  to  that  is.     Example: 

In  order  to  pursue  this  investigation,  we  must  know  two 
things;  namely,  the  object  of  the  crime,  and  the  person  most 
benefited  by  its  commission. 

Never  use  this  kind  of  enumeration  except  in 
reference  to  a  business  matter,  or  in  a  matter-of-fact 
discussion.     It  would  be  ridiculous  to  write  this: 

Wrong:  I  watched  all  the  signs  of  her  emotion; 
namely  her  tears,  her  fast-coming  breath,  her  unre- 
strained sobs. 

Right:  I  watched  all  the  signs  of  her  emotion — 
her  tears,  her  fast-coming  breath,  her  unrestrained  sobs. 

139.  The  semicolon  is  used  to  separate  phrases  or 
clauses  which  are  used  alike  in  the  sentence,  when 
these  phrases  or  clauses  have  commas  within  them. 

It  is  evident  that  a  comma  used  to  separate  clauses 
within  which  there  were  already  conmias,  would  con- 
fuse the  reader  rather  than  help  him.     Examples : 

(a)  It  was  September;  the  weather  had  fallen  sharp ; 

a  flighty  piping  wind,  laden  with  showers, 
beat  about  the  township ;  and  the  dead  leaves 
ran  riot  in  the  streets. 

(b)  If  you  find  your  disinclination  to  my  plan  too 

great,  I  shall  take  means  to  force  you;  to 
compel  you;  to  make  you  less  obstinate; 
to  be  extreme  with  you;  in  short,  my  dear 
fellow,  to  command  you. 


THE   COLON  195 

140.  The  colon.  The  colon  (:)  indicates  that  some- 
thing is  to  follow. 

141.  The  colon  is  used  before  a  quotation  formally 
introduced.    Example : 

The  lawyer  spoke  as  follows:  *'l  can  not  plead  that 
my  client  needed  the  money,  but  I  can  state,  and  I  can 
prove,  that  yours  did." 

A  quotation  preceded  by  thus  or  as  follows  and  the 
colon,  is  said  to  be  formally  introduced. 

142.  The  colon  is  used  after  a  single  word  to  be 
followed  by  an  illustration,  as  after  the  word  Example, 
used  in  this  text. 

143.  The  colon  is  used  after  the  salutation  in  a  busi- 
ness letter.     Example: 

Mr.  John  H.  Thompson, 
53  Wall  Street, 

New  York  City. 
Dear  Sir: 

144.  The  colon  is  used  before  an   entunerating  list. 

Example : 

Send  for  the  following  articles:  brushes,  floor  wax, 
filler,  oil,  and  polishers. 

Exercise 

Supply  colons  where  they  are  needed  in  the 
following  sentences: 

1.  Please  send  the  following  pupils  to  me  immediately 
after  school  Fred  Smith,  Elsie  Deering,  Jane  Nutley,  Mary 
Rowe,  and  William  Yates. 


196  PUNCTUATION 

2.  The  merchant  ordered  this  list  leather  purses, 
hand-bags,  change  pocket-books,  chatelaine  bags,  and  bill- 
folders. 

3.  Congress  has  lately  passed  the  following  good  laws 
the  Good  Roads'  Measure,  the  Loan  Bill,  the  Naval  Appro- 
priation Bill,  and  others. 

4.  The  following  magazines  have  been  added  to  the 
list  in  the  school  Hbrary  The  Independent,  Harper's,  Collier's, 
and  The  Outlook. 

5.  Short  stories  by  the  following  authors  were  recom- 
mended to  the  class  O.  Henry,  Richard  Harding  Davis, 
Robert  Louis  Stevenson,  Mary  Shipman  Andrews,  and  H.  C. 
Bunner. 

145.  Marks  of  parenthesis.  Marks  of  parenthesis  (  ) 
are  used  to  enclose  a  part  of  the  sentence  which, 
although  adding  a  thought  to  the  sentence,  is  not 
connected  in  structure  with  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 
Example : 

As  I  found  my  way  through  the  rooms  (I  had  been 
there  before)  I  had  time  to  reflect  on  what  I  should  say. 

I  The  practice  of  enclosing  in  marks  of  parenthesis 
words  which  you  wish  to  strike  out  of  the  sentence 
is  wrong.  If  you  cannot  erase  such  words,  draw  a 
straight  line  through  them. 

146.  Brackets.  Brackets  [  ]  are  used  to  enclose 
explanatory  material  introduced  into  the  quotation 
by  the  writer  quoting.     Example : 

The  speaker  said,  ''They  [the  slaves]  are  powerless  to 
help  themselves.     We  must  help  them.'' 


CAPITAL  LETTERS  197 

147.  The  apostrophe.  The  apostrophe  (0  is  used  to 
mark  the  possessive  case  of  nouns.     Examples : 

Father's  business  collapsed  at  the  outbreak  of  war. 
Men's  hats  and  caps  are  sold  here. 

148.  The  apostrophe  is  used  to  indicate  the  pliiral 
of  letters,  figures,  and  other  symbols.     Examples: 

He  had  three  B's  on  his  report. 
Make  your  r's  more  plainly. 
Cross  out  the  2's  and  3's  instead. 

149.  The  apostrophe  is  used  to  mark  the  omission 
of  letters  in  contractions.     Examples : 

He's,  won't,  o'clock. 

150.  Capital  letters.  Use  a  capital  letter  to  begin  the 
first  word  of  every  sentence. 

151.  Use  a  capital  letter  to  begin  every  proper  noun 
or  adjective.    Examples : 

Lincoln,  the  American  army,  the  British  navy. 

152.  Use  a  capital  letter  to  begin  the  first  word  of 
e^ery  direct  quotation.     Example: 

The  girl  raised  her  head  quickly  and  said,  "Never; 
I  shall  never  do  it." 

153.  Use  a  capital  letter  to  begin  every  word  in  the 
title  of  a  book  or  theme  except  articles,  prepositions, 
and  conjimctions.     Example: 

This  quotation  is  taken  from  A  Window  in  Vladivostok, 


198  PUNCTUATION 

154.  Use  a  capital  letter  to  begin  each  noun  in  the 
salutation  of  a  letter.     Example : 

My  dear  Elizabeth. 

155.  Use  a  capital  letter  to  begin  the  first  word  of 
every  line  of  poetry.     Example : 

Cromwell,  I  did  not  think  to  shed  a  tear 

In  all  my  miseries ;   but  thou  hast  forced  me, 

Out  of  thy  honest  truth,  to  play  the  woman. 

156.  Use  a  capital  letter  to  write  the  pronoun  I  and 
the  interjection  O. 

157.  Use  a  capital  letter  for  father,  mother,  uncle, 
etc.  when  these  words  stand  instead  of  personal 
names.  Do  not  use  a  capital  when  the  possessive 
pronoun  precedes ;   as,  My  father  is  a  bookkeeper. 


XIV.     SPEAKING   AND   WRITING   ENGLISH 

158.  The  Dictionary.  The  dictionary  is  a  book 
which  contains  facts  about  words  as  they  are  used  by 
the  best  writers  and  speakers.  As  the  language  grew, 
words  acquired  new  meanings,  dropped  old  ones,  or 
went  out  of  fashion.  In  time  so  many  facts  about 
words  accumulated,  that  no  one  person  could  remember 
them.  Among  a  large  and  scattered  people,  too, 
uncertainties  concerning  spelling  and  proper  usage 
arose.  A  book  which  contained  the  facts  about  all 
our  words  became  a  necessity. 

Dictionaries  differ  in  the  method  of  presenting 
material,  but  the  following  definition,  from  an  un- 
abridged dictionary,  shows  how  to  find  out  the  essen- 
tial facts  about  a  word : 

in-tact'  (In-takt'),  o»  [L.  intadus;  inn  not  +  tadus,  p.  p. 
of  tangere  to  touch.  See  in-  not;  tact,  tangent.] 
Untouched,  esp.  by  anything  that  harms,  defiles,  or  the 
like;  uninjured;  undefiled;  left  complete  or  entire. 
Syn. — See  whole. 

Parentheses  in  which  are  enclosed  the  pronuncia- 
tion of  the  word  usually  follow  the  word  itself.  At 
the  bottom  of  each  page  in  the  dictionary  is  a  key 
to  the  symbols  found  in  the  parentheses. 

The  italicized  letter,  a.,  stands  for  adjective,  the 
part  of  speech  of  the  word. 

(199) 


200        SPEAKING  AND  WRITING   ENGLISH 

Placed  somewhere  in  the  definition  is  a  set  of 
brackets  which  contain  information  concerning  the 
sources  of  the  word.  In  this  case  you  see  that  the 
Latin  meaning  of  the  word  is  not  touched,  and  that  the 
Enghsh  meaning  is  identical — untouched,  uninjured. 

Below  the  various  meanings  of  the  word  is  the 
abbreviation  Syn,,  standing  for  synonyms,  and  indi- 
cating that  words  of  similar  kindred  meaning  are  to 
be  found  under  this  heading.  In  this  case  you  are 
directed  to  see  whole,  where  you  will  find  a  list  of  the 
synonyms,  and  a  discussion  of  the  meaning  of  each. 

penman  (-m^n),  n.;  pi.  -men  (men).  L  One  who  uses 
the  pen;  a  writer.  Specif.:  a  One  who  writes  or  copies 
papers,  documents,  or  the  like  for  another;  a  clerk;  scrive- 
ner, b  One  who  is  expert  in  penmanship;  one  who 
writes  well. 

2.  An  author;  a  composer. 

Note  that,  after  the  abbreviation  for  noun,  the 
plural  form  of  this  word  is  given,  pi.  men.  When 
the  plural  of  a  word  is  made  in  the  usual  way,  by 
adding  s  or  es  to  the  singular,  the  dictionary  does  not 
give  the  plural  form;  but  if  there  is  any  irregularity 
about  a  plural  form,  the  dictionary  gives  the  plural. 

After  the  plural  form  and  its  pronunciation  is  the 
number  1  in  black-faced  type.  Below,  the  number  2 
occurs  in  black-faced  type.  These  numbers  indicate 
that  the  word  penman  has  two  different  meanings  or 
senses.  The  different  meanings  are  given  in  numerical 
order  for  convenience  only.  The  fact  that  one  meaning 
precedes  another  in  this  numerical  list  does  not  show 
that  one  meaning  is  preferred  to  another.     You  can 


IDIOM  201 

generally  tell  which  meaning  applies  to  the  word  that 
you  are  looking  up,  by  the  way  the  word  is  used  in  the 
sentence.  Do  not  take  the  first  meaning  you  see  and 
make  a  ludicrous  mistake. 

Note  that  in  meaning  1  the  abbreviation  Specif, 
occurs.  A  list  of  the  meanings  of  abbreviations  is 
found  on  a  page  in  the  front  of  the  dictionary.  Mean- 
ing 1  is  subdivided  into  two  parts:  a  and  b.  These 
divisions  indicate  a  difference  in  meaning. 

The  dictionary  tells  the  rank  or  standing  of 
words.  AVords  in  use  by  the  best  writers  and  speakers 
of  our  time  are  said  to  be  in  good  use.  The  dictionary 
distinguishes  between  words  that  are  in  good  use 
and  those  which  are  not  by  plainly  marking  those 
that  are  not.     Examples  of  this  marking  are: 

Ohs.j  standing  for  obsolete,  meaning  out-of-date, 
R.y  standing  for  rare,  meaning  seldom  used, 
U,  S,y  standing  for  United  States,  meaning  u^ed 

only  in  the  United  States. 
Colloq.,  standing  for  colloquial,  meaning  used  in 

informal  conversation  only. 
Slang,  meaning  an  expression  not  in  accepted  usage. 

All  symbols  and  abbreviations  are  explained  in  the 
dictionary. 

159.  Idiom.  You  can  say  He  was  a  friend  of  the  clerk's, 
and  you  can  say  He  was  a  friend  of  the  clerk.  You  can 
say  He  wa^  a  friend  of  mine,  but  you  cannot  say  He  was 
a  friend  of  me. 

Why  can  you  not  say  He  was  a  friend  of  msf 
The   reason   is   very   simple.      The   language,    in   its 


202        SPEAKING   AND   WRITING   ENGLISH 

growth,  has  sanctioned  He  was  a  friend  of  mine,  and 
has  not  sanctioned  He  was  a  friend  of  me,  although, 
of  the  two  constructions.  He  was  a  friend  of  me  is 
closer  to  grammatical  .  usage.  There  are  hosts  of 
expressions  in  the  language  like  He  was  a  friend  of 
mine.  They  are  in  good  standing,  but  they  can  not 
be  cut  into  grammatical  bits  and  classified.  These 
expressions  are  called  idioms. 

An  idiom  is  a  mode  of  expression  peculiar  to  the 
language  in  which  it  is  found. 

Idioms  are  expressions  which  carry  force  as  wholes. 
It  is  unwise  to  tear  them  to  pieces  in  the  attempt  to 
give  each  piece  a  grammatical  name.  Moreover,  if 
you  try  to  bring  all  idioms  under  the  ordinary  rules  of 
grammar,  you  will  spend  much  time  and  effort  in 
making  distinctions  that  will  be  of  no  assistance  to 
you  in  writing  or  speaking. 

The  following  examples  illustrate  the  kind  of 
expressions  better  treated  as  wholes: 

At  all:       He  will  give  me  nothing  at  all  in  return  for   my 

work. 
Boot:         We  traded  horses.     I  gave  Harry  five  dollars  to 

boot. 
Cheek:        There  he  was,  cheek  by  jowl  with  the  worst  boys 

in  town. 
Cut:  She  cuts  a  poor  figure. 

Good:         If  you  make  good,  I  shall  be  proud  of  you. 
In:  He  was  up  in  arms  against  the  whole  situation. 

Long:         He  studies  all  day  long. 
Look:        Lookout!    There's  the  train! 


IDIOM 


203 


Set:  That  story  set  them  all  by  the  ears. 

Worse:      What  you  say  makes  the  matter  so  much  the  worse. 

Worth:       Give  me  a  quarterns  worth  of  candy. 

Besides  the  idiomatic  expressions  just  illustrated, 
there  are  many  idiomatic  uses  of  prepositions. 
Examples  of  wrong  and  right  uses  are  here  given. 


We  do  not  say: 

The  man  worked  on  or  by  & 

machine  all  day. 
I  placed  it  into  the  bag. 
I  sat  in  back  of  you. 
I  can  not  help  biU  smile  at  her. 
His  point  of  view  is  different 

than  mine. 
John  borrowed  my  pencil  off 

me. 
I   bought   this  fruit   off  the 

Italian  peddler. 
May  I  have  the  loan  of  your 

pencil? 
The  prisoner  was  freed  of  his 

obligations. 
Her  hair  was  kept  in  place  with 

a  net. 
There  were  fresh  curtains  to 

the  windows. 
Conferences  end  around  half- 
past  three. 
Were  you  to  school  yesterday? 

Take  that  cap  off  of  your  head. 


We  do  say: 

The  man  worked  at  a  ma- 
chine all  day. 

I  put  it  into  the  bag. 

I  sat  behind  you. 

I  can  not  help  smiling  at  her. 

His  point  of  view  is  dififerent 
from  mine. 

John  borrowed  my  pencil. 

I  bought  this  fruit  from  the 

Italian  peddler. 
May  I  borrow  your  pencil? 

The  prisoner  was  freed  from 
his  obligations. 

Her  hair  was  kept  in  place 
by  a  net. 

There  were  fresh  curtains  at 
the  windows. 

Conferences  end  about  half- 
past  three. 

Were  you  at  school  yester- 
day? 

Take  that  cap  off;  or,  take 
that  cap  off  your  head. 


204        SPEAKING  AND  WRITING  ENGLISH 


We  do  not  say: 

She  crawled  in  under  the  table. 
What  is  inside  of  this  drawer? 
I  have  come  in  regards  to  a 

matter  of  business. 
I  shall  not  go  without  you  do. 
He  talks  like  he  was  angry. 
I  was  to  the  office  to  inquire. 
What  is  the  matter  of  it? 


We  do  say: 

She  crawled  under  the  table. 
What  is  inside  this  drawer? 
I  have  come  in  regard  to  a 

matter  of  business. 
I  shall  not  go  unless  you  do. 
He  talks  as  if  he  were  angry. 
I  was  at  the  office  to  inquire. 
What  is  the  matter  with  it? 


XV.     POPULAR  ERRORS 

Many  errors  frequently  occurring  in  the  oral  and 
written  work  of  pupils  are  here  listed,  and  exercises 
for  correcting  such  errors  are  given.  This  chapter 
offers  for  correction  some  errors  which  are  rhetorical 
rather  than  grammatical  in  their  nature.  The  fact 
that  crudities  of  expression,  as  well  as  actual  gram- 
matical errors,  contribute  their  share  toward  making 
the  speech  of  modern  young  people  unattractive, 
seems  to  justify  their  inclusion. 

160.  Subject  not  in  the  nominative  case. 

Wrong:     Him  and  her  went. 
Right:     He  and  she  went. 

Exercise 

Correct  the  following  sentences : 

1.  Them  are  my  books. 

2.  Me  and  her  were  both  early. 

3.  John  was  shorter  than  him. 

4.  Kate  and  her  applied  for  the  position. 

5.  He  was  a  man  whom,  it  is  said,  never  did  wrong. 

161.  Predicate  nominative  not  in  the  nominative  case. 

Wrong:     Yes,  that  was  him. 
Right:     Yes,  that  was  he. 


This  list  of  errors  is  given  in  the  report  on  "A  Course  of  Study  in  Grammar." 
by  Dean  W.  W.  Charters,  issued  by  the  University  of  Missouri,  Columbia,  Mis- 
souri.    The  examples,  exercises,  and  discussion  of  the  errors  are  our  own. 

(205) 


206  POPULAR  ERRORS 

Exercise 

Correct  the  following  sentences : 

1.  I  knew  it  was  her  when  I  heard  her  step. 

2.  If  it  were  me,  I  would  resign. 

3.  Whom  was  it  they  wanted? 

4.  That  poor  student  was  me. 

5.  I  felt  so  sorry  when  I  learned  that  it  was  him  who 
had  been  killed. 

162.  Nominative  of  pronoun  wrongly  used  for  objec- 
tive. 

Wrong:     The  decision  lay  with  she  and  I. 
Right:     The  decision  lay  with  her  and  me. 

Wrong:  The  man  who  you  used  to  know  has  gone 
away. 

Right:  The  man  whom  you  used  to  know  has 
gone  away. 

Exercise 

Correct  the  errors  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Between  you  and  I  there  must  be  a  secret. 

2.  Grandfather  told  she  and  I  a  wonderful  story. 

3.  The  girl  who  you  called  is  absent  to-day. 

4.  I  never  knew  a  citizen  who  such  honor  was  shown  to. 

5.  The  watermelon  was  divided  up  among  we  girls. 

163.  Wrong  form  of  pronoun. 

Wrong:     He  injured  hisself. 
Right:     He  injured  himself. 


USING   THE   PERSONAL   PRONOUN  207 

Exercise 
Correct  the  errors  in  the  following  sentences : 

1.  If  they  could  put  theirselves  in  our  position,  they 
would  know. 

2.  James  was  angry  with  hisself  when  he  found  his 
mistake. 

3.  We  had  put  ourselfs  at  a  disadvantage. 

4.  He  is  not  afraid  of  the  chief  hisself. 

164.  First  personal  pronoun  standing  first  in  a  series. 

Wrong:     I  and  you  are  the  ones  to  go. 
Right:     You  and  I  are  the  ones  to  go. 

Correct  the  errors  in  the  following  sentences : 

1.  I  and  George  were  the  first  ones  there. 

2.  I  and  several  friends  spent  a  week  together. 

3.  Mary  and  I  and  her  sister  made  up  the  party. 

4.  I  and  you  could  be  spared. 

165.  Use    of   the    personal   pronoun   instead    of   the 
required  adjective. 

Wrong:    Them  trunks  have  gone. 
Right:    Those  trunks  have  gone. 

Exercise 
Correct  the  errors  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Are  them  our  checks? 

2.  Them  elevators  are  hydraulic. 

3.  Them  soldiers  are  jolly,  aren't  they? 

4.  I  never  was  busy  yet  that  them  boys  didn't  come. 


208  POPULAR   ERRORS 

166.  Failure  of  the  adjective  to  agree  with  its  noun  in 
number. 

Wrong:     She  had  one  of  these  kind  of  pictures. 
Right:     She  had  one  of  this  kind  of  picture. 

Exercise 

Correct  the  errors  in  the  following  sentences : 

1.  It  was  one  of  those  type  of  mail  chutes. 

2.  Those  sort  of  stories  aren't  worth  reading. 

3.  I  like  those  kind  of  people. 

167.  Failure  of  the  verb  to  agree  with  its  subject  in 
number  and  person. 

Wrong:     It  don't  matter. 
Right:    It  doesn't  matter. 

Exercise 
Correct  the  errors  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Is  your  feet  wet? 

2.  Isn't  there  any  eggs? 

3.  How's  all  your  people? 

4.  There  isn't  bananas  enough  to  go  around. 

5.  Don't  he  know  you? 

6.  Reasons  ain't  always  convincing. 

7.  I  am  your  own  cousin,  ain't  I? 

8.  These  is  the  best  I  have. 

9.  Rules  is  a  nuisance. 

168.  Confusion  of  past  and  present  tenses. 

Wrong:     You  knew  what  I  ask  you. 
Right:     You  knew  what  I  asked  you. 


PAST  TENSE   AND   PARTICIPLE  20^ 

Exercise 
Correct  the  errors  in  the  following  sentences : 

1 .  He  give  me  that  yesterday. 

2.  It  use  to  be  that  food  was  cheap. 

3.  I  questioned  him  and  he  answers  me. 

4.  The  dog  come  around  the  corner  just  as  I  reached 
the  steps. 

5.  The  funny  part  of  it  was,  he  leaves  the  baby  in  the 
station. 

6.  I  goes  over  and  I  says  to  him,  I  says,  "What  do  you 
want?" 

7.  I  asked  a  guard  how  to  get  there,  and  he  says,. 
"Walk." 

8.  I  eat  a  good  dinner  to-day. 

169.  Confusion  of  past  tense  and  past  participle. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  frequent  errors.  One 
of  the  surest  ways  to  avoid  it  is  to  know  perfectly  the 
principal  parts  of  irregular  verbs,  and  to  remember 
that  the  past  tense  of  such  verbs  is  used  independently, 
never  with  have,  and  that  the  past  participle  of  such 
verbs  is  never  used  independently,  but  always  with 
have.  For  example,  many  people  say,  /  seen  it  and 
/  have  saw  it.     The  principal  parts  of  the  verb  see  are: 

Present  Past  Past  Participle 

see  saw  seen 

With  the  principal  parts  in  mind,  you  realize  that  saw 
is  the  form  that  can  stand  alone,  and  that  seen  is  the 
part  that  must  have  the  help  of  have.  The  correct 
statements  are :  /  saw  and  /  have  seen.    A  table  of  the 

14 


210  POPULAR   ERRORS 

principal  parts   of  irregular   verbs   can   be  found  on 
pages  130-135. 

Exercise 

Correct  the  errors  in  the  following  sentences : 

1.  I  haven't  did  a  thing  all  day. 

2.  I  would  have  went  if  you  would. 

3.  This  is  the  prettiest  scarf  I've  ever  saw. 

4.  You  might  have  knew  that  it  would  rain. 

5.  If  I  had  took  you  at  your  word  I  would  have 
regretted  it. 

6.  I  seen  a  fountain  pen  that  has  been  wrote  with 
for  ten  years. 

7.  He  hadn't  ate  such  a  meal  in  years. 

8.  She  has  sang  for  royalty. 

9.  The  wind  has  blew  our  chimney  over. 

10.  The  bell  has  rang;  you'd  better  hurry. 

11.  I  was  took  off  my  feet  with  surprise. 

12.  That  man  has  drank  all  the  water. 

13.  Has  that  child  fell  again? 

14.  I  done  all  I  could  for  him. 

170.  Wrong  tense  forms. 

This  error  also  can  be  avoided  if  you  know  the 
principal  parts  and  the  way  to  form  the  tenses. 

Wrong:     I  knowed  him  well. 
Right:     I  knew  him  well. 

Exercise 
Correct  the  errors  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Johnson  thro  wed  a  good  ball. 

2.  The  wind  blowed  twenty  miles  an  hour. 


THE   WRONG   VERB  211 

3.  The  pipes  froze  and  busted. 

4.  He  dumb  up  the  lattice  and  drug  the  vine  off. 

5.  He  hasn't  aten  meat  in  a  year. 

6.  I  disremember  what  he  said. 

171.  Wrong  verb. 

You  sometimes  make  errors  because  you  do  not 
know  the  principal  parts  of  verbs.  Another  source  of 
error  lies  in  not  knowing  the  meanings  of  verbs.  Always 
be  sure  not  only  of  the  principal  parts  but  of  the 
meanings  of  verbs.  The  verbs  most  frequently 
confused  as  to  the  meaning  are  here  explained. 

Lie  and  lay. 

The  principal  parts  of  the  verb,  including  the 
present  participle,  are  here  given : 

Present  Past               Present  Past 

Tense  Tense  Participle  Participle 

lie  lay                   lying  lain 

lay  laid                  laying  laid 

Lie  means  to  recline;  that  is,  to  be  in  a  position 
of  rest.     Lay  means  to  put  or  place  something. 

First  of  all,  consider  the  meanings  of  the  two 
verbs.  Realize  what  being  in  a  position  of  rest  means. 
An  animal  body  can  get  into  a  position  of  rest.  You 
can  lie  down;  a  dog  can  lie  down.  A  thing  can  not 
lie  dowTi,  but  you  may  speak  of  it  as  if  it  could.  A 
book  can  not  actually  lie  down,  but  of  a  book  in  a 
position  of  rest  on  a  table  you  may  say.  The  hook  lies 
on  the  table.  The  difference  between  being  in  a  posi- 
tion of  rest  and  putting  something  somewhere  ought 


212 


POPULAR  ERRORS 


to  be  very  plain.  I  put  (lay)  the  book  on  the  table. 
After  I  have  put  (laid)  the  book  on  the  table,  the 
book  lies  or  is  lying  there.  Now  learn  the  principal 
parts  of  the  verbs  with  the  meaning  of  each  verb  in 
mind.  There  is  only  one  difficulty.  The  past  tense 
of  the  verb  meaning  to  be  in  a  position  of  rest  is  just 
like  the  present  tense  of  the  verb  meaning  to  put 
something.  If  you  know  your  principal  parts  and 
what  you  want  to  say,  this  resemblance  will  not  con- 
fuse you.     Here  are  examples  of  the  use  of  the  verbs : 


Mother  lies  down  every  after- 
noon. 

Mother  lay  down  yesterday 
afternoon. 

Mother  will  lie  down  to-mor- 
row afternoon. 

Mother  has  always  lain  down 
in  the  afternoon. 

Mother  had  just  lain  down  to 
rest. 


Mother  lays  the  book  on  the 

table. 
Mother  laid  the  book  on  the 

table. 
Mother  will  lay  the  book  on 

the  table. 
Mother  has  laid  the  book  on 

the  table. 
Mother  had  laid  the  book  on 

the  table. 


Sit  and  set. 

Present 

Past 

Present 

Past 

Tense 

Tense 

Participle 

Participle 

sit 

sat 

sitting 

sat 

set 

set 

setting 

set 

Sit  means  to  rest  in  what  is  familiar  to  you  as 
"a  sitting  position.''  You  sit  down;  a  dog  sits  down. 
A  thing  can  not  actually  sit,  but  you  may  speak  of  it 
as  if  it  could.  The  house  sits  far  back  from  the  road. 
The  sewing  table  sits  in  the  corner  of  the  room. 


THE  WRONG   VERB 


213 


To  set  is  to  put  something  somewhere.  You 
set  the  table;  you  set  the  buttons  an  inch  from  the 
edge;  you  set  the  hen,  but  the  hen  sits  on  the  eggs. 
She  is  a  sitting  hen.  If  you  know  the  principal  parts 
of  the  two  verbs  and  what  you  want  to  say,  you  will 
not  confuse  them.     Here  are  examples  of  their  use: 

The  teacher  sits  at  her  desk.      I  always  set  the  flower-pot 

on  the  sill. 
The  teacher  sat  at  her  desk.        I  set  the  flower-pot  on  the 

sill. 
The  teacher  will   sit   at   her     I  shall  set  the  flower-pot  on 

desk.  the  sill. 

The  teacher  has  not  sat  at  her     I  have  set  the  flower-pot  on 

desk.  the  sill. 

The  teacher  had  sat  at  her     I  had  set  the  flower-pot  on 

desk.  the  sill. 


Rise  and 

raise. 

Present 

Past 

Present 

Past 

Tense 

Tense 

Participle ' 

Participle 

rise 

rose 

rising 

risen 

raise 

raised 

raising 

raised 

Rise  means  to  ascend,  or  to  move  from  a  lower 
position  to  a  higher.  Raise  means  to  make  move 
from  a  lower  position  to  a  higher.  There  is  a  differ- 
ence between  moving  and  making  move.  A  sick 
person  may  rise  from  a  chair  with  the  assistance  of  a 
nurse.  The  sick  person  rises;  the  nurse  raises  the 
sick  person. 

Wages  rise,  but  an  employer  has  to  raise  them. 

The  sun  rises;  a  person  getting  up  in  the  morning 


214  POPULAR  ERRORS 

is  rising;  he  raises  the  shades  to  let  in  the  sunlight. 
He  lowers  the  windows  which  he  had  raised  the  night 
before.  Bread  dough  rises;  it  itself  moves  to  a  higher 
position;  after  it  has  reached  the  higher  position,  it 
has  risen.  The  only  way  you  could  raise  dough  is  to 
pick  it  up.  A  man  describing  what  he  did  when  he 
was  frightened  by  a  noise  in  the  night  said,  ^^I  raised 
up  in  bed  to  listen.''  He  meant,  ^^I  rose  up  in  bed  to 
listen,''  or  ''I  raised  myself  up  in  bed  to  listen." 
Examples  of  the  use  of  these  verbs  follow: 

I  rise  early.  I  raise  the  windows  at  night. 

I  rose  early.  I    raised    the    windows    at 

night. 
I  shall  rise  early.  I  shall  raise  the  windows  at 

night. 
I  have  risen  early.  I  have  raised  the  windows  at 

night. 
I  had  risen  early.  I  had  raised  the  windows  at 

night. 

May  and  can. 

May  implies  permission;    can  implies  power. 

A  child  once  asked  his  teacher,  ^^Can  I  shut  the 
door?" 

'^I  don't  know,"  repHed  the  teacher.  ''Have  you 
the  strength  to  do  it?  " 

The  child  had  merely  desired  permission  to  close 
the  door;  he  asked  the  teacher  whether  or  not  he  had 
the  power  to  close  it.  Examples  of  the  use  of  these 
verbs  follow: 

You  may  read  if  you  wish.  Can  you  read? 

You  may  draw  the  design.  Can  you  draw  a  design? 


COMPARATIVES  AND   SUPERLATIVES       215 

May  I  typewrite  your  letter     Can    you    operate    a    type- 

for  you?  writer? 

You  may  drive  the  car,  John.     Can  John  drive  a  car? 

Leave  and  let. 

Present  Past  Present  Past 

Tense  Tense  Participle  Participle 
leave                 left                 leaving  left 

let  let  letting  let 

Leave,  except  in  an  idiomatic  use  or  two,  means 
to  go  away  and  to  cause  to  remain ;  let  means  to  allow. 
When  you  say  ''I  left  him  go/'  you  are  saying,  '^I  went 
away  him  go."  Examples  of  the  use  of  these  verbs 
follow : 

I  leave  the  room.  I  often  let  my  daughter  go  to 

the  theater. 
I  left  the  room.  I  let  my  daughter  go  to  the 

theater  yesterday. 

172.  Confusion  of  comparatives  and  superlatives. 

Wrong:     The  larger  of  the  three  boys  ran  away. 
Right:     The  largest  of  the  three  boys  ran  away. 

Wrong:  My  brother  and  I  measured.  He  proved 
to  be  the  tallest. 

Right:  My  brother  and  I  measured.  He  proved 
to  be  the  taller. 

Write  the  following  sentences  correctly: 

1.  This  chart  is  the  best  of  the  two. 

2.  This  example  is  the  hardest  of  the  two. 

3.  The  larger  city  in  the  world  is  London. 


216  POPULAR  ERRORS 

4.  She  is  the  oldest  of  the  two  sisters. 

5.  He  is  the  younger  of  a  family  of  five. 

173.  Confusion  of  adjective  and  adverb,  or  adjective 
and  pronoun. 

Wrong:     Do  you  like  candy?    I  sure  do. 
Right:     Do  you  like  candy?     I  surely  do. 

Wrong:     That  play  went  pretty  good. 
Right:     That  play  went  pretty  well. 

Wrong:     Are  them  trunks  ours? 
Right:    Are  those  trunks  ours? 

Write  the  following  sentences  correctly: 

1.  Bring  them  calendars  here. 

2.  He  was  hurt  bad,  but  he  will  recover. 

3.  I  knew  them  people  years  ago. 

4.  I  sure  was  glad  when  the  whistle  blew. 

5.  The  game  went  good,  but  I  sure  was  worried  at  first. 

174.  Double  negative. 

Wrong:    There  ain^t  no  use  talking  to  some  people. 
Right:    There  isn't  any  use  talking  to  some  people. 

Wrong:     I  never  did  that,  neither. 
Right:     I  never  did  that. 

Wrong:     One  man  didn't  say  nothing  hardly. 
Right:     One  man  said  hardly  anything. 

Write  the  following  sentences  correctly: 

1.  He  isn't  never  going  to  write  to  her  again. 

2.  There  ain't  no  more  paper. 

3.  I  haven't  had  no  chance. 


UNNECESSARY  WORDS  217 

4.  You  don't  care  nothing  about  marks. 

5.  He  doesn't  know  no  more  about  that  than  I  do. 

175.  Confusion  of  preposition  and  conjunction. 

Wrong:     He  never  did  like  he  was  told. 
Right:     He  never  did  as  he  was  told. 

Wrong:    He  shivers  like  he  was  cold. 
Right:     He  shivers  as  if  he  were  cold. 

Write  the  following  sentences  correctly: 

1.  He  shouted  like  he  was  scared. 

2.  He  ran  like  he  was  going  for  a  doctor. 

3.  Don't  do  like  I  do;  do  like  I  say. 

176.  Unnecessary  words. 

Wrong:     The  girls  they  have  a  club. 
Right:     The  girls  have  a  club. 

Wrong:    Where  do  you  live  at? 
Right:    Where  do  you  live? 

Wrong:     This  here  ink,  it's  watery. 
Right:     This  ink  is  watery. 

Write  the  following  sentences  correctly: 

1.  My  uncle  he  stepped  upon  the  scales. 

2.  That  there  notebook  is  mine. 

3.  Where  did  I  leave  my  pen  at? 

4.  This  here  pohceman  he  says  to  me,  "You  must  go 
home." 

5.  My  brother  he  joined  the  army. 


218  POPULAR  ERRORS 

177.  Wrong  part  of  speech  because  of  similarity  of 
sound. 

Wrong:    There  were  to  men. 
Right:    There  were  two  men. 

Wrong:    The  guests  road,  but  we  walked. 
Right:    The  guests  rode,  but  we  walked. 

Write  the  following  sentences  correctly: 

1.  I  had  two  much  trouble  with  my  English. 

2.  I  know  too  men  who  conduct  orchestras. 

3.  There  are  to  or  three  exits. 

4.  You  can  by  anything  you  want  their, 

5.  We  had  know  money  with  us. 


INDEX 


Activ^e  voice,  25 

Adjective,  definition,  82;  further 
defined,  83;  articles,  84;  predi- 
cate, 85;  comparison  of,  86; 
incorrectly  used  for  adverbs,  95; 
attributive  complement,  footnote, 
91;  demonstrative,  footnote,  83; 
indefinite,  footnote,  83;  quantita- 
tive, footnote,  83;  distributive, 
footnote,  83 ;  failure  to  agree  with 
noun  in  number,  exercise  on,  208; 
confusion  of  comparatives  and 
superlatives,  exercise  on,  215;  con- 
fusion of  adjective  and  adverb, 
exercise  on,  216 

Adjectives  incorrectly  used  for  ad- 
verbs, 95 

Adjective  phrase,  101;  clause,  106; 
clause  same  as  relative,  107; 
clause  introduced  by  when  and 
where,  note,  107 

Adverb,  definition,  93;  idiomatic 
adverbs,  94;  adverbial  use  of 
noun,  95;  comparison  of,  97; 
conjunctive,  113;  confusion  of 
adjective  and  adverb,  exercise  on, 
216 

Adverbial  phrase,  100;   clause,  105 

Agreement  of  pronoun  with  ante- 
cedent, 67;  of  subject  and  verb  in 
person  and  number,  142 

Any,  each,  some,  etc.,  as  pronouns, 
80;    as  adjectives,  83 

Apostrophe,  197 

Appositive,  52 

Article,  84 

Auxiliary  verbs,  125,  165 

Be,  forms  of,  139,  164 

Both,  some,  each,  etc.,  as  pronouns, 

80;   as  adjectives,  83 
Brackets,  196 

CaU.  forms  of,  158-160 

Capital  letters,  rules  for,  197 

Case,  discussed,  43;  nominative,  43 ; 

possessive,     45;      objective,     49; 

genitive,  footnote,  45;  accusative, 

footnote,  49;  dative,  footnote,  50 


Case,  of  noun  governed  by  preposi- 
tion, 56 

Change  of  tense  in  indirect  quota- 
tions, 147 

Clause,  11;  subordinate,  14;  prin- 
cipal, 15;  difference  between 
clause  and  phrase,  57;  relative,  76; 
adverbial,  105;  adjective,  106: 
adjective,  introduced  by  when 
and  where,  note,  107;  adjective 
same  as  relative,   107;   noun,  108 

Cognate  object,  footnote,  52 

Colon,  195 

Collective  nouns,  pliu-al  of,  40; 
verbal  agreement  with,  144 

Comma,  rules  for,  182;  comma 
blunder,  185,  192 

Common  noun,  31 

Comparison  of  adjectives,  86 

Comparison  of  adverb,  97 

Complex  sentence,  13-15 

Compound  personal  pronoun,  72 

Compound  relative  pronoun,  78; 
inflection  of,  79 

Compound  sentence,  9;  predicate,  8 

Confusion  of  adjective  and  adverb, 
exercise  on,  216 

Confusion  of  adjective  and  pronoun, 
exercise  on,  216 

Confusion  of  comparatives  and  su- 
perlatives, exercise  on,  215 

Confusion  of  preposition  and  con- 
junction, exercise  on,  217 

Conjugation  of  verb,  defined,  157", 
examples  of,  158-165 

Conjunction,  definition,  111;  coordi- 
nating, 111;  pure,  112;  conjunc- 
tive adverb,  113;  subordinating, 
116;  confusion  with  preposition, 
exercise  on,  217 

Conjunctive  adverb,  113 

Coordinating  conjunction,  111 

Dangling  participle,  173 

Declarative  sentence,  3 

Degree  of  adjectives,  86;  confusion 
of  comparatives  and  superlatives, 
exercises  on,  90,  215;  degree  of 
adverbs,  97 


(219) 


220 


INDEX 


Demonstrative   adjective,   footnote, 

83 
Dictionary,  how  to  use,  199 
Difference      between      clause      and 

phrase,  57 
Direct  object,  49;   quotations,  147 
Distributive  adjective,  footnote,  83 
Double  negative,  exercise  on,  216 

Each,  some,  any,  etc.,  as  pronouns, 

80;    as  adjectives,  83 
Exclamatory  sentence,  4 

Failure  of  adjective  to  agree  with 

noun  in  number,  exercise  on,  208 
Failure  of  verb  to  agree  with  subject, 

exercise  on,  208 
Few,  any,  several,  etc.,  as  pronouns, 

80;   as  adjectives,  83 
First     personal    pronoun     standing 

first  in  a  series,  exercise  on,  207 
Function,  121 

Gerund,  176 

Harmony  of  verb  and  adverb,  148 
Hyphen,  181 

Idiom,  201 

Idiomatic  adverbs,  94 

Imperative  mood,  152;  forms  of,  153 

Indefinite  adjective,  footnote,  83 

Indicative  mood,  150 

Indirect  object,  50;   quotations,  147 

Infinitives,     153;      forms    of,     154; 

tense  of,  155;    without  sign,  156; 

split,  156 
Inflection,  34 
Interjection,  120 
Interrogative  pronoun,  79 
Interrogative  sentence,  3 
Intransitive  verb,  27 
Irregular  verbs,  129 

Let  and  leave,  215 
Lie  and  lay,  211 
Linking  verb,  20 

Many,  this,  that,  etc.,  as  pronouns, 
80;   as  adjectives,  83 

May  and  can,  171,  214 

Modifier,  82 

Mood,  149;  indicative,  150;  sub- 
junctive, 150;  imperative,  152 

Nominative  case,  43;  use  of  with 
verb  he,  63;  exercises  on  proper 
use  of,  205;  nominative  of  pro- 
noun wrongly  used  for  objective, 
exercise  on,  206 


Nominative  of  pronoun  wrongly 
used  for  objective,  exercise  on,  20C 

Noun,  31-53;  definition,  31;  com- 
mon, 31;  proper,  32;  person  of, 
33 ;  number  of,  34 ;  collective,  40 ; 
working  as  subject,  42;  as  direct 
address,  43 ;  as  predicate  nomina- 
tive, 43;  used  as  possessive,  45; 
used  in  objective  case,  49;  used  as 
appositive,  52;  governed  by  prep- 
osition, 56;  adverbial  use  of,  95; 
noun  clause,  108 

Number  of  nouns,  34-42 

O,  when  capitalized,  120 

Object,  direct,  49;  indirect,  50; 
cognate,  footnote,  52;  secondary, 
footnote,  52 ;  retained,  footnote,  52 

Oh,  when  capitalized,  120 

Parenthesis,  marks  of,  196 

Participles,  149;  use  of,  172;  dan- 
gling, 173 

Parts  of  speech,  discussed,  18 

Passive  voice,  25 

Period,  187 

Person,  33 

Personal  pronoun,  declined,  61; 
governed  by  a  preposition,  64,  65; 
as  subject,  66;  possessive  case, 
67 ;  agreement  with  antecedent,  67 

Phrase,  definition,  57;  prepositional, 
57;  adverbial,  100;  adjective,  101 

Popular  errors,  205 

Possessive  case,  45 

Predicate,  4;   compound,  8 

Predicate  adjective,  85 

Predicate  nominative,  43;  exercise 
on  proper  use  of,  205 

Preposition,  54-58;  definition,  54; 
case  of  noun  governed  by,  56; 
prepositional  phrase,  57;  con- 
fusion with  conjunction,  exercise 
on,  217 

Principal  parts  of  verbs,  129-135 

Progressive  form  of  verb,  156 

Pronoun,  definition,  59;  forms  of 
personal,  61;  summary  of  uses 
of,  62;  case  of  with  verb  be,  63; 
governed  by  a  preposition,  64, 
65;  as  subject,  66;  possessive 
case,  67;  agreement  with  antece- 
dent, .67;  compound  personal,  72; 
relative,  76;  agreement  of,  76; 
declension  of,  76;  compound  rela- 
tive, 78;  inflection  of,  79;  inter- 
rogative, 79 ;  other  pronouns,  80 : 
wrong  form  of  pronouns,  exercise 


INDEX 


221 


on,  206;  nominative  of  pronoun 
wrongly  used  for  objective- 
exercise  on,  206;  first  personal 
pronoun  standing  first  in  a  series, 
exercise  on,  207;  wrong  use  of 
personal  pronoun,  exercise  on, 
207;  confusion  of  adjective  and 
pronoun,  exercise  on,  216 

Proper  form  for  past  tense,  137 

Proper  noun,  32 

Proper  verb  form  with  have,  136, 
Ex.  2 

Punctuation,  defined,  177;  rules 
for,  178-198;  quotation  marks, 
178;  quotation  within  a  quota- 
tion, 179;  hyphen,  181;  the 
comma,  182;  comma  blunder, 
185,  192;  the  period,  187;  the 
semicolon,  190;   the  colon,  195 

Pure  conjunction,  112 

Quantitative  adjective,  footnote,  83 
Quotation,  direct  and  indirect,  147; 

marks,    178;    quotation  within  a 

quotation,  179 

Regular  verbs,  129 

Relative  pronouns,  76;  agreement 
of,  76;  declension  of,  76;  com- 
pound relative,  78 ;  inflection  of,  79 

Relative  clause,  76 

Retained  object,  footnote,  52 

Rise  and  raise,  213 

Secondary  object,  footnote,  52 

See,  forms  of,  161-163 

Semicolon,  190 

Sentence,  1,2;  declarative,  interrog- 
ative, imperative,  3;  exclamatory, 
4;  simple,  7;  compoxmd,  9;  com- 
plex, 13 

Sequence  of  tenses,  145 

Shall  and  will,  165 

Simple  sentence,  7;  subject,  4 

Sit  and  set,  212 

Some,  any,  each,  etc.,  as  pronouns, 
80;   as  adjectives,  83 

Spht  infinitive,  156 

Subject,  4;  simple  and  compound, 
7;  in  nominative  case,  43;  exer- 
cise on  using  nominative  case  for 
subject,  205 

Subjunctive  mood,  150;  forms  of, 
151-152 

Subordinating  conjunction,  116 

Tense,  124-129;  of  irregular  verbs, 
135;      sequence    of    tenses,    145 


Tense,  change  of,  in  indirect  quota- 
tions, 147;  confusion  of  past  and 
present,  exercise  on,  208;  wrong 
tense  forms,  exercise  on,  210 

That,  this,  each,  etc.,  as  pronouns, 
80;   as  adjectives,  83 

Transitive  verb,  23 

Unnecessary  words,  exercise  on,  217 
Using  the  participle,  172 

Verb,  18-30.  Definitions,  19,  21; 
linking  verb,  20;  transitive,  23; 
voice,  24;  intransitive,  27 ;  tense, 
124;  regular  and  irregular,  129; 
principal  parts,  129;  tenses  of 
irregular  verbs,  135;  proper  form 
with  have,  136;  proper  form  of 
past  tense,  137 ;  wrong  verb  forms, 
138;  be,  139;  agreement  with 
subject,  142;  sequence  of  tenses, 
145;  change  of  tense  in  indirect 
quotations,  147;  participles,  149; 
mood,  149;  infinitives,  153;  split 
infinitive,  156;  progressive  form, 
156;  conjugation  defined,  157; 
examples  of  conjugations,  158- 
165;  auxiliary  verbs,  125,  165; 
using  the  participle,  172;  the 
gerund,  176;  failure  of  verb  to 
agree  with  subject,  exercise  on, 
208;  confusion  of  past  and 
present,  exercise  on,  208;  con- 
fusion of  past  tense  and  past  parti- 
ciple, exercise  on,  209;  wrong 
tense  forms,  exercise  on,  210; 
use  of  wrong  verb,  lay  for  lie,  etc., 
explanation  and  illustrations,  211- 
215 

Verb  forms,  124 

Voice,  active  and  passive,  24;  how 
to  form  passive,  140 

What,  which,  etc.,  as  adjectives,  83 
When,  introducing  adjective  clause, 

note,  107 
Where,  introducing  adjective  clause, 

note,    107;    used  as  plain  adverb, 

118 
Which,  what,  etc.,  as  adjectives,  83 
Would  and  should,  169 
Wrong  form  of  pronoun,  exercise  on, 

206 
Wrong   part   of   speech   becau.se   of 

similarity  of  sound,   exercise  on, 

218 
Wrong    use    of    personal  pronoun, 

exercise  on,  207 


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